Occidental Studies

Abstract This article has been arranged to discuss Leo Strauss’ hermeneutical principles and their impacts on his political thought as well as his reading of Plato in two parts: 1. Strauss’ hermeneutics; and 2. Strauss’ political view. His believes that philosophers have introduced their teachings in a mysterious way; and their fear of prosecution prevents ordinary study of their works. And all that has been said, in the name of philosophy, of their works is a noble lie which philosophers had to say to people. In secret, they had other beliefs which they did not wish to reveal for other than their own friends. As a matter of fact, Strauss is an enemy of philosophy as it is taught in universities. In this article, the author has criticized this view seriously and logically. Strauss has been motivated to approach Plato’s works because of crisis in the West. Concerning justice as discussed in Plato’s Republic, Strauss thinks that Thrasymachus’ view is reasonable, and he is of the opinion that “justice is the advantage of the stronger” (338c). He thinks that Socrates’ defense against this view is an incomplete one and Socrates had been of the same opinion with Thracymachus.

Abstract The present article tries to show that Rorty's philosophy has some moral message. To do so, we have to look at the contents of some of his books and in particular After Philosophy and The Mirror of Nature. The above-mentioned moral message may be, implicitly or explicitly, seen in his neo-pragmatist ideas and thoughts in the form of concepts and terms such as "solidarity", "democracy", and "cultural politics". In many places, of course, Rorty expresses this message in literary language and in particular through novelists. The present study, of course, is not intended to prove that, like Kant, Rorty has some philosophy of morality; since he is one of the stubborn critics of Kantian morality. Rorty's neo-pragmatist and critical approach to Kantian morality is influenced by pragmatism of Dewey, James and Levinas' philosophy.

Abstract Though democracy enjoys such a lofty status in the contemporary world that many people think of it as a certain and evident thing, theory of democracy and its standards have been faced by challenging critiques. The main origin of critical approach towards democracy should be sought for in the ancient Greece time. As a matter of fact, since the very beginning in the ancient time, the nature of democracy have been faced by problems and crises by which democracies in our time are faced as well. Brief rereading of some critical considerations concerning democracy in an analytic-descriptive methodology and explanation of challenges facing it are the main objective of the present article. According to the findings of the present research, cognitive interaction between equality and liberty, two conflicting dimensions of democracy, democracy puzzle, and the phenomenon of globalization are the main challenges by which the theory of democracy is faced.

Abstract The final end of this paper is to analyze the concepts of “progress” and “break down” in scientific revolutions and show the existing paradoxes in kuhn’s works about them. We firstly show that some thinkers has assumed human progress, in philosophy of history, the logic of historical research and historiography. Later we show that Kuhn doubt about that and represents the history of science discrete.

Abstract The end of this article is to analyze Plato’s view about poem and poets with regard
to Republic. Here we try to give as possible as a consistent and homogeneous
interpretation of Plato’s thought.
According to the most commentator’s tradition-that with regard to the content of
ten books of this treatise is an appropriate tradition- we will concentrate our attention
on the books second, third and tenth.

Abstract Communitarianism is one of the most important critics of political liberalism. Communitarianism has raised a number of questions, especially about individualism and state’s neutrality in political and social issues. Therefore, this article tries briefly to study this approach. The findings show that communitarianism, unlike liberal individualism, requires state’s interference in political and social issues.

Abstract Commentators have hitherto analyzed the interrelation between Spinozan and Hegelian concepts, especially in works where Hegel directly mentions Spinoza (such as Logic and The Lectures on History of Philosophy). The present inquiry, however, is an attempt to undertake the harder task of studying Spinozan concepts of Ethics exactly at the juncture in Hegel''s philosophy where there is no trace of Spinoza, i.e. in Phenomenology of Spirit. A survey of works written in various languages shows that there is no book or article specifically and exclusively written on this subject; in this respect, the present inquiry is innovative. After a short introduction to the reciprocity of Hegel''s works and Spinoza''s philosophy, the inquiry will bring out and examine some oppositional concepts from these two books (namely Ethics and Phenomenology of Spirit), such as Spinozan substance/Hegelian spirit, Spinozan mechanism/Hegelian organism, and Spinozan eternity/Hegelian historicity, and finally, it will reveal how Phenomenology of Spirit sublates Spinoza''s Ethics in its Hegelian sense of sublation.

Abstract If observable behaviors represent the thoughts that are behind them, it is evident that every attempt to reform them depends on a change in the viewpoint. By accepting this hypothesis, solving personal and social issues of modern societies needs reconsideration of the viewpoint that is the infrastructure of the total structure called modern thought. Gabriel Marcel puts forth the creative fidelity of this change and reformation. He believes the true value can be given back to humans by transforming human interactions based on everyone’s common experience. Furthermore, he wants to alter the society’s superstructures.

Abstract Heidegger's views on technology have had a great influence on contemporary philosophy of technology in both continental and analytic traditions. In this essay, the essence of modern technology and its relation to the history of Being, Ge-stell, and the danger of its domination, and Heidegger's approach to escape from the current technological atmosphere, and finally some deficiencies of his approach to technology, will be discussed. Heidegger considers the duty of human beings in our current age as preparation of readiness for the advent of a saving God. Releasement toward things and meditative thinking prepare us for the emergence of a post-technological age.

Abstract In the early Wittgenstein’s aesthetic perspective, aesthetics is a way of ‘expressing’ the mystical, and the factuality of facts. Accordingly, a work of art is an object seen from sub specie aetenitutis. Sub specie aetenitutis viewing means seeing the world as a finite whole. When we see things from this perspective, forget their everyday’s profits and costs and transcend them from the facts. Hence, we see them with wonder and finite laudatory surprise in the finite whole framework. A work of art shows the wholeness of the world and therefore illustrates its meaning. Based on early Wittgenstein, if the moral propositions are nonsensical and moral education is actualized only by examples and extensions, so art is a best example.

Abstract One of the main questions that has preoccupied Foucault scholars is that whether his views on power provide some possibilities for agency and revolution. These scholars also have debated whether his stance toward Iranian revolution can in any way be compatible with his theories on power and freedom. In this essay, I will consider the roles freedom and subjectivity play in Foucault’s works, especially in his writings on Iran revolution. According to Michel Foucault, when power has pervaded every sphere of human life, an important possibility for subjectivity can be found in “spiritual exercises”, a series of exercises for self-cultivation. The Iranian revolution represented these spiritual exercises, since many revolutionists were engaged in internal self-fashioning and external changing at the same time. The French scholar believed that, because of its esoteric teachings, Shi’ite Islam provides these chances for freedom. Clearly, these conclusions were not easily acceptable to Western audiences, who are not accustomed to these categories.

Abstract One of the questions raised in recent political philosophy is relation  Between power, subject and body, This is that power how constitutes the subject and it body. Michel Foucault is a great thinker that to answer these questions, not only explores the Genea of the modern subject, But also He speaks of  technology of Self, Means A set of mechanisms through which The Self Dose exercise of power on and in itself. So how technology of self , makes the modern subject and it bodies? What are the consequences of such a situation? Foucault's solution for the emancipation of the modern subject of this situation, is including what lessons for our society today?. It seems that in the political thought of Foucault, The subject And his body takes shape In the process of monitoring and punishment mechanism panopticism and internalized. Perhaps the most important consequence of this situation is self-alienation of the subject and body. It seems, Foucault proposed the two solution of joined together to release subject of alienating: 1- Resistance and refusal permanent, 2- Parrhesia (telling the truth). means on Foucault ,the one hand, Invites of  we to have a permanent resistance against the relations of knowledge / power / truth not only in the outside world but also within (The negative form of Foucault solution), On the other hand, invites of  Us for have to Being frank, risk and to reconstruct of self  based on creative narratives(The Positive form of Foucault solution).

Abstract In this paper I try to refute Guyer’s reading of Kant’s refutation of idealism in a way in which I defend Kant’s idealism which has been denied by Guyer. By the notion of idealism according to Kant’s philosophy I mean we are not allowed to use space referring to thing in itself, as opposed to Guyer’s claim. In other words according to Kant objects of experience are objectively constructed by subject based upon lawful connection between them, as he expresses in the first analogy of experience, overlooking what they are really in themselves as mind-independent reality. I shall show Kant’s refutation of idealism does not involve any knowledge of thing in itself as opposed to Guyer’s reading; rather, Kant uses outer thing as an object of experience, that is, outer things are experience-sensations under application of categories. Some scholars such as Allison (2004) have defended Kant’s idealism. Dina Emundts (2010) shows, as opposed to Guyer’s claim, Kant has located refutation of idealism in the right place, namely after analogies of experience in edition B. She also shows refutation of idealism can attain its goal and it does not thus fail; that is, it can rebut problematic idealism. I endeavor to concentrate on the issue which indicates Kant uses outer thing in refutation of idealism in edition B as object of experience not as thing in itself. Meanwhile, I rebut Guyer’s argument and adduce my own reasons point-by-point in order to defend Kant’s idealism.

Abstract Concept of the other in philosophy of Levinas gives identity to his other concept. He criticizes the epistemology and ontology, at the same time questions the integrity of the subject and the universality of other. According to Levinas the other is possibility to deny the totality of the subject and possibility to transcendence to go beyond static identity. This article tries to show that relationship between subject and the other is not cognitive or ontological, but it's foundation is ethical relationship that is formed in proximity the other. The most important dimension of other's existence that we understand it, is the moment of his/her death. This leads to fundamental ethical relationship in which responsibility for the death of the other is the most important aspect of realization of our being. According to us, understanding being, as Heidegger insists on it, is not being toward death through a genuine relationship with his own death, but we believe that other's death is the moment of devastating departure to find out such a being tied with the nothingness. The existence is realized in being for other and subjectivity in the acts of relation to the other and subsequently by protecting others against death.

Abstract I will try to show how Thomas Aquinas, via distinction of natural theology from divine revelation, has provided a fundamental basis for the originality of realm of reason, viz. Philosophy and natural sciences instead of realm of faith; and this is the beginning of the modern world. This approach to understanding Summa Theologiae is distinct from Gilson's writings based on which reason and faith according to Thomas' thought are in harmony. He understands Thomism as the perpetual wisdom, but I will try to explain a new consideration about his thought; the reason is fundamental and limited in Thomas' theological writings.

Abstract According to Aristotelian tradition, Thales is known as the first philosopher, but in ancient Greece, he was called a wise man or sophos. Sophos and Sophia, meaning wisdom, at that time implied two aspects of thought and action so that Thales was mentioned in the list of the seven ancient sages that except Thales, the rest were politician or legislator. Anecdotes related to Thales indicate both aspects so that these anecdotes show him a man concerning action as well as thought. These two aspects of action and thought would be better known by analyzing the conception of arche in his teaching so that upon this analysis, arche as the way that means the beginning or origin of universe and the basis of his cosmology, it implies the governance and domination and his political thought depends on this conception. This article aims to clarify two aspects of thought and action in the concept of sophia by giving such analyzing so it would appear that Thales as a sophos was not only a thinker, but a thinker who his thought was in conjunction with action.

Abstract     In contemporary existentialism, there are four endearing concerns or anxieties that cause human anxiety. These worries are freedom, emptiness, death and loneliness. A person is looking for the security of the childhood of these worries. In this philosophical and literary school, the human being is known as a subject who, in the experience of being and touching the meaning of being, immediately faces the truth of life and finds its absurd and meaningless life, Then, relying on the protection of the gem of "freedom" and using the possibility of choosing and choosing a goal, it brings a meaning to the series of events and events called "life". Erwin Yalom, in line with these thoughts, has tried to study existential concerns, including loneliness, which leads to problems and disruptions in life, and finds solutions to them. In this paper, we look at ways of coping with this problem by relying on an existentialist approach by examining what and the types of loneliness.

Abstract This paper is a study and the philosophical critique of the concept of "bête machine" theory with the human environmental behaviors in Modern ages, and our question is what precisely does Cartesian mean the modern and contemporary man's behaviors with animals and the environment?
We have first studied and evaluated precisely Cartesian propositions about animals and examined the ability of the theory to cover the whole material nature, including the human body. The doctrine of unity and integrity, the doctrine of Genesis Classlessness and the doctrine of non-thinking activism are three basic doctrines that can be deduced from Descartes' thought. Then we have discussed that the way of defining the environment in the modern ages and some humanistic behaviors in modern and pseudo-modern societies with nature and animals is fully compatible with these three Cartesian doctrines and does not consider any natural and inherent right for inhuman vital organisms.
Finally, we have argued that Descartes' ability to extract the moral and legal system governing human behavior with animals and nature can be interpreted in two ways: 1. This perspective is sufficient to extract these Systems; 2. This view is certain, but to extract these systems is inadequate, and as a result, we need to advance and develop our knowledge in metaphysics or in science in order to establish a moral and legal system for dealing with animals and nature. Then, with the advent of the second interpretation, we believe that the mere consistency of these Descartes' principles with this kind of modern moral and legal norms is not a good reason to call the behavior of modern humans to animals and nature as Cartesian. In Descartes's view, progress in science is a necessary condition for the establishment of morality; new sciences and sciences such as animal and natural physiology can be considered as such.

Abstract The way of dealing with the West is one of the main components of Iran's thought space, and the outbreak of the Islamic Revolution of Iran is also a product of this concern. In the form of Western-critique paradigm, Shariati tried to create new meanings and themes derived from traditional, religious, mythical and modern elements to present a picture of the West within the framework of its political discourse, which has a distinctly different appearance beforehand . In this paper, the teachings of post-colonial studies, and in particular the two concepts of extravagance and the creation of another, have been used as a theoretical framework, and the Laclau and Mouffe discourse analysis method has been used as a method to answer the question that the West How is Shariati political discourse presented? The findings of this paper show that he, through the representation and pictorial mechanism, has drawn a boundary between the "Me" and "the other" of the west and has devised an image of the West that has implications Because it is an imperialist, exploiting, devilish, oppressor and arrogant.

Abstract Gadamer, like Plato, considers “dialogue” as the basis of the knowledge; that is, we know things around us through the dialogue. It is clear that, dialogue needs, at least, two partners. In Plato, at least at first glance, it seems that the partners in dialogue are two persons. Is that so in Gadamer? To this question, there are two answers among Gadamer commentators. a) Most of them think that the dialogue between “persons” is the basis. We as persons must, in their view, come together and make conversation in order to come near to the knowledge of the world and the things around us. b) but, some others, as Figal see the things themselves as a partner in conversation alongside with persons. in Gadamer human being and the world both are of verbal nature. Things also have the verbal nature and have something to say. Understanding and knowledge take place in the verbal conversation between human being and the world as the partner; that is, as I and Thou. this paper tries to show that, in Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics, “conversation between human being and the world” and “conversation between persons” both are the basis of understanding and knowledge.

Abstract Although “Philosophy of Culture” is commonly taken to refer to a rather new and interdisciplinary branch that has been developed in Germany since late twentieth century, one can trace the first philosophical ideas about culture, in the modern sense of the term, back to Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803). In this context, one of Herder's most important legacies (or lasting contributions) is "cultural pluralism,” which he utilized as a tool against the colonial totalitarianism of Enlightenment. Herder was critical of the commonly held belief in the superiority of European culture over other cultures, and introduced a new definition and understanding of culture that could potentially be used to defend the cultures of other parts of the world, especially Eastern cultures. With the aim of explaining Herder’s concept of "cultural pluralism," the present article will organize and explain this concept under three key sub-headings of "cultural singularity", "internal judgment," and “concept of force.” It will analyze its opposition to "cultural Europeanism" and demonstrate its possibilities for confronting the European-centric concept of totalitarianism. Finally, a brief section will be devoted to the discussion of the charge of relativism against Herder’s "cultural pluralism”.

Abstract Descartes, in his epistemological inquiry process, known as grammatical doubt, has chosen a kind of behavioral discipline with a provisional state. In this type of moral advice, living on the basis of common and relatively simple principles is promoted without the need for a previous philosophical basis, and regardless of the content of the belief and the degree of its coherence or strength. The question is that What is the conceivable relationship between: a) This minimalist interpretation of morality, which takes the easy preparation of acknowledging the necessity of morality and discovering its major instances, and b) The so-called postmodern morality, which in the later historical context of Descartes, and it takes a much stricter view of the possibility and value of morality? By an intertextual reading of the relationship between provisional and postmodern perceptions of ethics, it seems that Descartes's provisional behavioral strategy is a commentary on the presence of ethics in postmodern discourse and, in fact, it is the pillar of the survival of this discourse regarding to the necessity of ethics.

Abstract The present study deals with the matter of human recognition (specifically anthropocentric). Here we examine the term anthropocentric in the transition from modern philosophy to phenomenology. Our attempt here is to do this with a qualitative analysis of the works and first-hand texts of modern philosophical and phenomenological thinkers. This transition can be followed by "recognition of consciousness". With the influence of Bacon and Descartes, Kant began with doubt, and with his transcendence he brought certainty and conciseness, and carried out the plan to humanize science by eliminating man. Hegel makes this certainty with the phenomenology of the soul and his dialectical scheme with the connection of man and soul in the course of history. Husserl, whose name is familiar with phenomenology, tries to establish certain science with the slogan "Return to Things"; But he brought the "lifeworld" to the relativists, and at the end of his life he considered the dream of philosophy as a certain science to be over. Heidegger (transcendental) puts man at the center of the world. Dasein is always present in the world. The present study reinforces human-centered approaches in which human beings have always been and will always be central.

Abstract Heidegger was greatly influenced by pre-Socratic thinkers. He has paid attention to the experience of these thinkers in examining the truth of language. According to Heidegger's interpretation, Logos is a "verb" that causes the creation of all beings. Also, all relationships between beings are gathered in Logos. Heidegger says that the words of these Greek thinkers come from Logos, and their thinking also comes from listening to Logos. Heidegger, along with the pre-Socratics, considers the manifestation of being as the essence of language. At the beginning of this article, Heidegger's relationship with pre-Socratic thinkers will be examined, and then the nature of language in Heidegger's thought will be explained according to the concept of Logos. Heidegger's influence of pre-Socratic thinkers on the subject of language can be analyzed on two levels; The first step is to pay attention to Logos in their thought and the next step is the relationship between Logos with Being, although of course the second step was hidden in the background of the first step and was derived from it.

Abstract Social emergence is one the most important problems in social science that the way it is answered affects the results of social studies and policies. The complexity of social emergence conception has caused a variety of definitions. This article seeks to define the robust social emergence conditions, using the philosophy of mind conception such as subvenience, wildly disjunctives, and multiple realization. Different approaches have different challenges in satisfying robust social emergence conditions. These challenges could be formulated in three problems i.e. realism, top-down causality, and mechanism. This article aims to analytically criticize how critical realism approaches these problems. Critics believe that critical realism faces two sort of difficulties in satisfying robust social emergence: the first, the independence of structure from agencies that leads to reifying and the second, that ontological and causal emergence conflicts with subvenience. It seems the first problem could be resolved by employing the unrestricted mereological composition conception, and the second by the fact that subvenience do not necessitate ontological dependence.