Occidental Studies

Abstract Communitarianism is one of the most important critics of political liberalism. Communitarianism has raised a number of questions, especially about individualism and state’s neutrality in political and social issues. Therefore, this article tries briefly to study this approach. The findings show that communitarianism, unlike liberal individualism, requires state’s interference in political and social issues.

Abstract In history of philosophy, the problem of our knowledge about external world is one of considerable topics and the most important version of that is found in René Descartes. In recent decades, a new approach called Externalism have emerged that seems can respond to this problem especially Process Confidentialism approach. In present article, it have been shown that this theory because of almost tolerable standards and avoidance of strict Cartesian requirements introduce an almost new perspective.

Abstract The main aim of this paper is to describe and analyze one of the most significant criticisms of classical utilitarianism in the Anglo-Saxon philosophical tradition. This criticism, called the “integrity criticism,” was put forward by Bernard Williams in 1973 and, along with the so-called “justice criticism” which was put forward by John Rawls in 1971, is counted as the most significant criticism of classical utilitarianism. It argues that utilitarianism threatens the agent’s “integrity” and “autonomy,” and brings extensive “alienation” from her considered moral judgments and friendly and lovely relationships. This paper describes Bernard William’s criticism of classical utilitarianism and its various guises. Then, using Roger Crisp’s, Julia Driver’s, and Timothy Chappell’s interpretations, it analyzes it from various perspectives. Analyzing the “integrity criticism” in its various guises enriches our understanding of “utilitarianism” and helps us to find out how and why its different forms have been put forward.

Abstract Wittgenstein practices a critique of language, in a broad Kantian sense. In the middle of the Tractatus Wittgenstein writs whit Kantian ring: All philosophy is critique of language. There is a fairly long tradition of reading that finds the Tractatus basically Kantian.  Considering the importance of this reading in relation to the Tractatus, this article attempts to explain and analyze this reading according to David Pears. Pears believes that the simplest general characterization of Wittgenstein’s earlier philosophy is that it is critical in the Kantian sense of that word. Kant offered a critique of thought and Wittgenstein offers a critique of the expression of thought in language.

Abstract In this paper we argue about religious fundamentalism as a social movement. We use a particular theory to explore different aspects of these movements. To use Castell’s theory could be suitable to analyze this kind of movement. Then to explain fundamentalism we use Zahed practical - theoretical model in social movements. This model is applied to three fundamentalist movements in Christianity, Islam and Judaism (Christian Zionism, Al Ghedeh and Gush Emunim). Finally we find some similar points among them. Such as: fundamentalism as global phenomena, similar reactions to secularism and …

Abstract The main objective of this paper looks at the Michel Foucault’s view about power and nature. Heidegger, Freud, Marx and Nietzsche in particular had a major impact on him. His own alternative methodological approaches in paleontology and genealogy, and with concepts of knowledge and understanding or the concept of discourse, had a very great impact on most areas of the range of thought and thinkers of his era. The main problem in genealogy is that how people by getting involved in network of power relations and knowledge, is formed as subject and object and paleontological method is either an historical analysis of systems of thought or speech. He believes that the power is not an exclusive or unilateral thing for a person, group or class. Foucault thinks that the power is not only in the hands of rulers and in their personal possession, but also is a relationship and network which distributes like nerves system in the society. The power has a software nature and it is not tangible and visible. Foucault believes that power is not necessarily apply violent means, but a lecture, cassettes, books, ideas and ... can be sources of power.  Reaching of this manifestations view of power in society which distributed at all levels of society, has an extraordinary power which no army dare not deal with it.

Abstract Islamic Civilization is a subject with great importance, not only concerned with the identity of the Islamic world but also can be an effective factor in establishing it in the time when the Western Civilization beholds nothing equal to itself. But finding ups and downs occurred in the Western Civilization and how important this ups and downs is, are problems that can be a subject for research. Besides, in the discussion of the scientific and social developments in the human history, usually three periods are considered as criterions, that are Hellenic Ages, Middle Ages, and New Age; but this historical division includes mostly the scientific and social history of Europe and the West. This article discusses scientifically how to consider certain periods for the Islamic Civilization as well as its ups and downs during five great historical changes from various points of view. Two of these five periods studied in this article are the decadence and three of them are the exaltation of the Islamic civilization. Now we are in the third period of exaltation and the fifth step of development of the Islamic civilization. It can be a multilateral critical and comparative look at the history and development of the Islamic Civilization as compared with those of the Western Civilization.