Document Type : Research Paper
Authors
1 AssocProfessor of Sociology, Faculty of Sosial Sciences, Department of Sociology, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
2 PhD Student of sociology, Faculty of Sosial Sciences, Department of Sociology, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
Abstract
Introduction
The Cartesian subject and Kant’s transcendental perception are considered the foundations of modern epistemology. The evolution of the concept of the subject from Descartes to Hegel shows its deep connection with modernity. Modern thought largely defines itself in relation to the idea of the subject, either by reaffirming or criticizing it. Initially, philosophers like Descartes and Kant viewed the subject as an independent consciousness that perceives the object. Descartes saw the subject as central and superior to the object, while Kant emphasized the subject's inherent awareness. In contrast, thinkers like Hume, Marx, and Foucault challenged the primacy of the subject. Hume denied the unity of the mind; Locke stressed objective reality independent of perception; Marx described the subject’s alienation under capitalism; and Nietzsche reinterpreted subjectivity through power relations. Philosophers like Vico and Herder offered a middle path, emphasizing historical knowledge and evolving reason. Hegel introduced self-consciousness, suggesting that awareness of objects must accompany self-awareness. Heidegger critiqued the Cartesian-Kantian notion of a transcendental subject, arguing it perpetuated metaphysical subjectivism. Foucault extended Heidegger’s critique by analyzing subjectivity through power, knowledge, and discourse, showing that resistance and subjugation are intertwined. Through history, philosophers treated the subject as a crucial concept. Heidegger and Foucault, in particular, examined how technology and discourse shape and control subjectivity. This study compares their views to clarify the evolution of the subject.
Materials & Methods
This research first gathers information from books and articles on Heidegger and Foucault, then compares their views. Heidegger criticizes Cartesian philosophy, particularly its subject-object separation, which he believes leads to a mechanical and technological view of the world. Instead, he emphasizes Dasein — the being-in-the-world — highlighting the intertwined relationship between humans and their environment. Heidegger rejects both realism and idealism, proposing a phenomenological approach that seeks to understand lived human experience directly, beyond abstract metaphysical frameworks.
Through Dasein, Heidegger portrays existence as dynamic and interpretive, not a static self-awareness. Human beings are always already embedded in a historical and cultural context, shaping and interpreting the world around them. Heidegger’s critique extends to epistemology; he challenges Kantian and Cartesian models, arguing that true knowledge stems from a primordial understanding of being, not abstract logic.
In discussing technology, Heidegger warns that it reduces beings to mere resources, concealing their true essence. However, he does not simply oppose technology; he calls for a deeper understanding of its essence, Ge-stell (enframing), where existence reveals itself through technological thinking. Heidegger stresses that Being itself resists human domination; existence cannot be fully controlled through will or technology.
Overall, Heidegger’s notion of subjectivity dismantles the Cartesian dualism of subject and object, proposing instead a dynamic, relational view of human existence deeply intertwined with Being and world.
Foucault, on the other hand, explores how modern power structures shape and produce subjects. He defines the subject in two ways: as one subjected to external control, and as one who forms an identity through self-awareness. Both involve forms of subjugation under pervasive systems of power.
Foucault emphasizes that power operates not just in formal institutions but permeates every layer of society through political technologies. These mechanisms not only create social hierarchies but also turn individuals into objects of knowledge and control. In modernity, despite appearing autonomous, subjects are deeply embedded within systems of surveillance, discipline, and normalization.
The body becomes a key site for the exercise of power: monitored, disciplined, and rendered an object of study. Foucault argues that individuals are shaped, rather than self-formed, by these systems, undermining the notion of autonomous subjectivity.
Both thinkers critically examine how modernity affects the concept of the subject. Heidegger focuses on the metaphysical and existential dimensions, while Foucault highlights the socio-political and disciplinary mechanisms that constitute human beings in modern societies.
Discussion & Result
This research explores and compares Heidegger's and Foucault’s perspectives on subjectivity and modernity. Heidegger criticizes Cartesian philosophy for its separation of subject and object, arguing that it leads to a mechanical understanding of reality. Instead, he proposes the concept of Dasein — being-in-the-world — emphasizing the interconnectedness of humans and their environment. Rejecting both realism and idealism, Heidegger advances a phenomenological approach centered on direct, lived experience.
Through Dasein, Heidegger portrays human existence as historically and culturally embedded rather than simply self-aware. He also challenges traditional epistemology, asserting that authentic knowledge arises from a primordial grasp of Being, not from abstract reasoning. Regarding technology, Heidegger warns that technological thinking reduces all entities to mere resources, hiding their true essence. His concept of Ge-stell (enframing) explains how technology frames and organizes our perception of existence, though he maintains that Being itself ultimately resists human domination. Heidegger redefines subjectivity as dynamic and relational, opposing Cartesian dualism.
In contrast, Foucault examines how modern power structures produce and control subjects. He sees the subject both as externally dominated and as self-formed through internalized practices shaped by power. Power, according to Foucault, operates beyond formal institutions, penetrating everyday life through political technologies that create social norms and systems of surveillance and discipline. The body becomes a key site for exercising control, illustrating how individuals are molded by external forces rather than being fully autonomous.
Both thinkers critique modernity’s impact on the human condition — Heidegger through an existential lens and Foucault through socio-political analysis.
Conclusion
Michel Foucault and Martin Heidegger both examined subjects like power, technology, and the modern condition, though with different approaches. Heidegger viewed technology ontologically, seeing it as a force that turns nature and humans into exploitable resources, alienating humanity from true Being. He warned against the "Enframing" mindset and called for a return to reflective, poetic ways of engaging with existence. In contrast, Foucault saw technology as practices and discourses linked to power, operating within institutions like prisons and hospitals. He highlighted "technologies of the self," through which individuals could shape their identities and resist dominant powers. Foucault argued that power is both repressive and productive, always offering possibilities for resistance. Together, their views offer a deep critique of modernity and suggest different strategies for confronting technological domination.
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