Research Paper
seyed mostafa shahraeini; Maziyar Raissi
Abstract
IntroductionJansenism was a theological sect reviving two important Augustinan doctrines: the corruption of all of human cognitive and volitional capacities due to the Original Sin, and recognizing God’s grace as its one and only redeemer with no role for human deeds, which was a kind of thoroughgoing ...
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IntroductionJansenism was a theological sect reviving two important Augustinan doctrines: the corruption of all of human cognitive and volitional capacities due to the Original Sin, and recognizing God’s grace as its one and only redeemer with no role for human deeds, which was a kind of thoroughgoing determinism. Blaise Pascal who was completely adhere to this specific theological background, tried to use his ingenuity in order to write an apological work in defense of this interpretation of Christianity in a posthumously published book called “Pensées”. In an important and famous fragment of the work, known as “The Wager”, Pascal asks his readers things that seem to require free will, for example, he wants them to gamble in favor of the existence of God, to weaken their passions and to act and live as if God exists. The same difficulty, of course, may be raised against the very act of writing an apology itself. It made so many researchers believe that this fragment entails a kind of argument in favor of the existence of God that we may call it, “The Wager Argument”. But if we bear in mind the theological background of Pascal, we will find that although we can definitely have a separate “Wager argument”, but “Pascal’s Wager” is not the case and cannot be. Hence, in order to distinguish “Pascal’s Wager” from “the Wager Argument”, we should reread the former Wager” in its own theological context. MethodologyOur methodology involves not just an abstract and conceptual analysis of the subject-matter but also entails a careful and precise rereading of the “Pascal’s Wager” in the original text with its relation to the other fragments of the “Pensées”. Again, we bear the Augustine and Jansen’s theological doctrines in mind, which are the key to the best way of grasping appropriate knowledge of what “Pascal’s Wager” means in its context.FindingsBy studying the fragment which in known as “The Wager”, in the same manner as done by other researchers, what we find is nothing but a series of inner inconsistencies and contradictions. The fragment persuades us, by using our free will, to gamble in favor of the existence of God whereas at the same time faith is only through God’s grace achieved and is not up to us at all. The fragment asks us to weaken our passions but we cannot do so because we lack the proper control over our passions and desires even if we wanted to do. It, having presupposed our free will, advises us to take a religious way of life and act as if we believe in God but this presupposition of our agency over life and actions is not justifiable with regard to the Pascal’s theological devotions. These inconsistencies and contradictions can even get more clear when we consider that the very act of writing apologetic work by Pascal in order to defend the religious faith and persuade people to initiate into the religious community, contradicts with total determinism with regard to the religious faith only because of the divine grace. If Pascal is going to defend an Augustinian-Jansenistian version of Christian faith, then he cannot invoke the free will in his account, a Jesuit approach to the faith to which Pascal definitely opposes. However, by scrutinizing the Wager fragment, we will find that a few prefaces precede it one of which deals with the way our cognitive faculty works that leads us to our principal cognitive faculty i.e. “the Heart”. Pascal uses this principal faculty in all three sides of cognitive, volitional and affective areas with special emphasis on its dual function, to say, the heart is in a continuous oscillation between the two extremities of the spectrum, e.g. determination and freewill. The heart cannot find a fixed point or side with one of the extremities (e.g. freedom/determinism or, certainty/skepticism) and otherwise if it could, we should call it “reason” not “heart”. The dual function of heart demands the same continuous oscillation; the feature of humankind which implies lack of unity which can be counted as a punishment of the Original Sin. Pascal used this faculty deliberately to point out the human dual character its best explanation of which he believed is the Augustinian-Jansenistian account of Christianity.Conclusion“Pascal’s Wager”, in contrast to “The Wager Argument”, is not a call for free choice in favor of the existence of God and Pascal’s Augustinian-Jansenistian theological background doesn’t allow it either. Apparent inconsistencies and contradictions in “Pascal’s Wager” are completely and deliberately used by Pascal with his reference to faculty of “Heart” in connection with its dual function.
Research Paper
malek shojaei
Abstract
1-IntroductionHans Diebreder "Bibliography of Islamic Philosophy" deals with the historiography of Islamic philosophy, from the time of publication of the first work by De Boer until our time. He has analyzed the assumptions of Orientalists in the historiography of Islamic philosophy and outlined the ...
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1-IntroductionHans Diebreder "Bibliography of Islamic Philosophy" deals with the historiography of Islamic philosophy, from the time of publication of the first work by De Boer until our time. He has analyzed the assumptions of Orientalists in the historiography of Islamic philosophy and outlined the history of Orientalist writings about Islamic philosophy and expressed its strengths and weaknesses. Daiber considers the most important features of the Orientalist approach (such as De Boer, Goldziher, Max Horton, etc.) in the historiography of Islamic philosophy to be neglecting the interaction of philosophy with Islamic words, emphasizing Platonic elements over Aristotelian elements, and paying little attention to the religious context. Islamic philosophy and exaggeration about the role of ethnic (Semitic) elements in the development of Islamic philosophy. Sharif, Nasr, Mehdi Khan, Tawfiq Ebrahim and others) believes that these works are more descriptive than critical and historical and in those historical-comparative studies about the Greek background of Islamic philosophy are generally ignored and exaggerated emphasis is placed on the originality of Islamic philosophy. considers it to be the reaction of Muslim scholars to the European-centered historiographical approach to Islamic philosophy. (ibid., xxviii).2-Materials & MethodsDr. Davari's reading of Islamic philosophy and its position in contemporary history and culture, whose main paradigm is the modern and Europe-centered discourse, while paying attention to the status and nature of contemporary Western philosophy and culture, tries to explore the possibilities of Islamic philosophy in dialogue with issues and Think about contemporary culture. This attention to Islamic philosophy has existed in different intellectual periods of Dr. Davari, including in books such as Farabi, the founder of Islamic philosophy (1354, first edition) and Maqam of philosophy in the period of Islamic Iranian history (1st edition, 1356) and later in our book and the history of philosophy Islamic (1389). According to Dr. Davari's analysis in his book "Ma and the History of Islamic Philosophy" (2009).3-Discussion & ResultThe survey of Islamic philosophy was directed to the sky rather than to the earth. He quoted Cicero as saying that Socrates brought philosophy from heaven to earth, and that Socrates has two talents: one earthly and the other heavenward. The first talent realized the modernity system and the second talent achieved the return to the sky (p. 25). Philosophy in the west of the Islamic world took the first path with Ibn Rushd, and Asan was placed on the path of Spinoza, Hume and Kant, and the second talent was actualized in the east of the Islamic world, especially in Iran. But now that modernity has fallen into disrepair in its own land and experts are talking about the weakness of its principles, the modernists have taken modernity and its philosophy as their goal and blame the philosophies that did not lead to it. This criticism is caused by an abstract understanding of the wisdom of the Enlightenment period and the desire to achieve it. Every fruit on a tree and every tree has its roots in the land that provides the conditions for planting and harvesting that tree. Philosophy cannot be cut and separated from its own world and it can be taken anywhere and kept fresh there. New philosophy is from that world of modernity and Christian and Islamic philosophy is from that world of Christianity and Islam.The type of metaphilosophy (METAPHILOSOPHY) and the perception we have about "philosophy of philosophy" are decisive in the reading we present of the position of Islamic philosophy in the contemporary world. In Dr. Davari's metaphilosophy, philosophy is not a set of correct rules about the inherent symptoms of existence, but rather a historical thinking. If the philosophers of the Islamic world had interfered in philosophy due to considerations, their philosophy would not have balance, proportion, and order, and it would not find durability and historical validity, but it would be an incoherent set of discussions and issues, which, because it did not have a solid foundation, would be carried away by the smallest wind of opposition. Therefore, the work of philosophy in the Islamic world did not end with the transfer and translation of the works of the predecessor philosophers, but this historical approach to Greek thought with a new interpretation that started from the beginning led to the emergence of another form of philosophy. The philosophers of the Islamic world considered the problems of Greek philosophy with They interpreted new principles and established a philosophy that, like any other form of philosophy, was an absolute and universal philosophy in the eyes of its owners. The division of philosophy according to the Greek, Middle Ages, Islamic and New eras has been done in the new era. In addition to this division, the thousand-year-old philosophy of the Islamic world can be called the Islamic-Iranian philosophy. Islamic philosophy, like the Greek philosophy, which considered the consistency of the just (human) Medina, thought about the place of man and his life in a divine but rational system.4-Conclusion The philosophers of the Islamic world learned from the Greeks the concepts of existence, nature, cause, causality, step, essence, width, change, movement, stillness, civil system, and moral virtues from the Greeks, and to some opinions and thoughts of Alexandrians and in general The debates that took place in the history of philosophy in the five hundred years after Plotinus were more or less accessible. The result of his discussion is that, firstly: Greek philosophy observes the perfection of human existence in Medina and guides the education of the people of Medina. Second: Islamic philosophy. It did not emerge by manipulating the opinions of Plato, Aristotle and the Neo-Platonists, but it is the first great and important intersection between two cultures and philosophies that are connected with the spirit of the Iranian-Islamic world. and it has been with this talent and desire that he has tried and worked hard with philosophy in the field of religious thinking. Fourth: Philosophers of the Islamic world interpreted Greek philosophy with regard to the horizon that was opened with Islam, and of course, in this interpretation, they did not ignore the wisdom of their ancestors in Iran before Islam. Ibn Sina spoke of Eastern wisdom, and Suhravardi considered the essence of his philosophy to have been learned from Khosravani's wisdom, and finally, he was involved in the consistency of philosophy of the Islamic period of ancient Iran, Sufism and mysticism from the beginning, and this involvement and presence gradually reached its peak in Mulla Sadra and his followers. If it is possible to stand somewhere in the current history of the world and have a dialogue with the philosophers of the past, those philosophers no longer belong to the past but are contemporary. The difference between philosophies and science is that science depends on its history in any case. Ptolemy has known history and the world, and for this reason his book is no longer taught, but Plato can be a contemporary philosopher. This ruling is also true for Farabi, Suhrawardi, Ibn Sina, and Mulla Sadra. If we read and memorize the texts of these philosophers and teach them to others, they will repeat the learned words and expressions. It is obvious that the text belongs to the past, but if, as Leo Strauss said, we read the hieroglyphics or, to be more precise, the gaps between the statements and the contents between the lines, and by reading them we reflect on the text, that text comes alive in time and speaks to its reader. All philosophers have unsaid and unwritten things. The task of the successor philosopher is to search for the unsaid of the predecessor. In Islamic philosophy, how should one search for the unsaid when a philosophy has traveled a thousand-year path, what path has it not taken and which words are left unsaid?
Research Paper
Hadi Salehi; Sroush Arya
Abstract
Extended Abstract: IntroductionThe field of political interaction, domestic or international, is fundamentally driven by human agency, with language serving as the primary tool for interaction. While various social science theories, including those in political science and international relations, can ...
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Extended Abstract: IntroductionThe field of political interaction, domestic or international, is fundamentally driven by human agency, with language serving as the primary tool for interaction. While various social science theories, including those in political science and international relations, can illuminate the context surrounding the formation of these linguistic interactions, social and political analysis cannot be confined solely to this peripheral, structural level. Political analysts continually encounter texts, statements, and speeches, necessitating a methodological framework for analyzing these linguistic interactions to achieve a clear understanding. The critical discourse analysis (CDA) approach offers a well-equipped methodological toolbox. Familiarity with CDA can aid in comprehending linguistic interactions within the political arena. Additionally, CDA possesses a highly systematic understanding of the discourse arena, introducing discourses as creators of worlds with specific rules of engagement and power dynamics. Each discourse constructs a world with its own set of rules and interactions. Human and institutional agents are represented within this world, each occupying a specific position and wielding a certain degree of power. The specific type of power relationship between agents is established based on the way the world is represented in each discourse. By dissecting discourses based on these functions, social science researchers can gain a clearer understanding of the language games and the meanings associated with each signifier or word within these games. Materials & MethodsThis article employs a critical discourse analysis (CDA) framework to investigate the interplay of language and power within the realm of political interaction. CDA, with its focus on the social and political functions of language, provides a robust set of tools for examining how discourse constructs meaning, shapes identities, and distributes power. 1 Specifically, this analysis will draw upon key tenets of CDA, such as: (1) examining the use of language, including metaphors, framing, and narrative techniques; (2) identifying key concepts, arguments, and underlying assumptions within political texts; and (3) analyzing how power relations are constructed and maintained through language. By applying these tools, this study aims to uncover the underlying power dynamics and ideological assumptions embedded within political discourseThe conclusion of the Cold War era has arguably transformed the underlying principles of international relations and the criteria guiding foreign policy decision-making. During the Cold War, state interactions were inevitably overshadowed by the confrontation between the two ideological blocs of the West and the East. Consequently, the entire world was divided into two, or at most three, blocs (considering the Non-Aligned Movement). Foreign policy decision-making prioritized security and power considerations, further influenced by the ideological identity a state adopted within the competitive bipolar Cold War environment. Broadly speaking, theories focused on the structural level, most notably neo-realism or structural realism, aligned with the objective and ontological reality of the international system. As Kenneth Waltz argued, state behavior in the practical arena was also determined by the influence of macro-level or international system variables.Waltz, who employs a structural approach that relies solely on macro-level or international system-level variables in theorizing international relations, considers any international analysis that attempts to explain phenomena using micro or domestic-level factors to be reductionist. However, Waltz himself, widely regarded as the most legitimate theorist of international politics, acknowledges the value of domestic-level variables in explaining and analyzing foreign policy (but not international policy).The end of the Cold War ushered in a more flexible and pluralistic era. No longer was there a single, global, security-oriented agenda that compelled each state actor to choose sides and align with one of three potential alliances. Political leaders, at both the regional subsystem and international system levels, enjoyed greater freedom to make decisions based on economic interests, as well as identity and civilizational elements. It is no coincidence that Huntington's thesis of the clash of civilizations emerged in response to Fukuyama's thesis of the end of history, both arising in the post-Cold War period. While Fukuyama emphasized the dominance of a single ideology (liberalism) across the globe, Huntington contends that the defining characteristic for identifying nation-states, as well as the source of hostility and competition in this era, has shifted from ideology to civilization. Discussion & ResultThis article will identify dominant discourses, recurring themes, and the strategic use of language to construct particular meanings and representations. By analyzing the discursive strategies employed, such as framing, metaphor, and the use of pronouns, the study will explore how these linguistic choices contribute to the construction of social identities, the positioning of actors, and the legitimization of particular power relations. Furthermore, the analysis will consider the historical and social context in which these discourses emerged and evolved, examining how they reflect and shape broader political and social realities.Another noteworthy aspect of the current era, often viewed as the neoliberal era from an international political economy perspective, is the increased prominence of the regional arena and economic issues, supplanting the focus on the macro-structural international arena and security-related issues traditionally associated with realpolitik. The challenge lies in the fact that the way each region is represented, including its spatial and geographical understanding, and the discursive representation of elements like development and underdevelopment, have become more numerous and diverse than before. In other words, the current era places greater emphasis on the linguistic representations employed by political leaders to portray themselves and the regional subsystem encompassing their state.Within this post-Cold War environment, language itself has emerged as a tool for creating and wielding power, given its role in shaping and expressing knowledge and truth. This is particularly true in diverse and pluralistic political environments and cultures. Understanding the various arrangements governing political cultures within states and at the regional subsystem level necessitates the use of methods like discourse analysis. The importance of grounded and discourse-based language methods in political studies and research, particularly in fields like postcolonial studies exemplified by Edward Said's work on Orientalism, has become increasingly evident and established. ConclusionBeyond these considerations, as will be explored in the following article, the method of critical discourse analysis (CDA) offers unique characteristics and functions. CDA equips researchers with the ability to systematically analyze the various functions of discourse and extended texts in terms of representation, the distribution of subject positions, and the establishment of power relations between these positions. As the influence of structural variables wanes, the significance of agency and internal elements comes to the fore. This new objective reality necessitates the diversification.
Research Paper
Ehsan Mozdkhah; Mehdi Najafzadeh; Morteza Manshadi; Seyyed Hossein Athari
Abstract
IntroductionMartin Heidegger, one of the foremost philosophers of the 20th century, offers a radical critique of Western metaphysical traditions while advancing an in-depth analysis of existential ontology. His pivotal concepts, including "Dasein," "Being," and "authenticity," underpin a profound rethinking ...
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IntroductionMartin Heidegger, one of the foremost philosophers of the 20th century, offers a radical critique of Western metaphysical traditions while advancing an in-depth analysis of existential ontology. His pivotal concepts, including "Dasein," "Being," and "authenticity," underpin a profound rethinking of existence and its philosophical implications. Heidegger’s influence extends deeply into continental philosophy, as well as contemporary socio-cultural theory. Central to his inquiry is the role of everyday life in either obscuring or unveiling the fundamental truth of Being. Heidegger contends that individuals often exist within rigid frameworks of pre-established social norms, which foster unconscious conformity at the expense of genuine self-discovery. This phenomenon, which he terms "fallenness," not only alienates individuals from existential questions but reduces them to instruments within socio-cultural structures. These structures, according to Heidegger, operate as mechanisms that regulate norms, power relations, and cultural values, often concealing existential truths while constraining opportunities for authenticity. Heidegger argues that individuals often live within pre-established frameworks and social norms, unconsciously adhering to them rather than discovering the true meaning of their own existence. This inauthentic mode of living, which Heidegger refers to as "fallenness," is a form of being in which individuals become oblivious to deeper existential questions. As a result, they are reduced to mere tools in the hands of socio-cultural forces. In this context, the social realm functions as a force or space in which power structures, cultural norms, and social relations are organized in ways that can limit authentic experiences and obscure existential truths.Materials & MethodsThis study employs an ontological lens to interrogate the notions of the social and the quotidian as articulated in Heidegger’s thought, emphasizing the centrality of Dasein and authenticity. It delves into Heidegger’s critique of inherited philosophical traditions, alongside his exploration of the dynamic interplay between language, routine practices, and social institutions. The methodological approach is qualitative, drawing heavily on primary texts, particularly Heidegger’s Being and Time, while incorporating secondary analyses that situate his philosophy within the broader socio-cultural milieu. This framework enables a nuanced examination of Heidegger’s insights into the roles of temporality, mortality, and normative structures in shaping human existence.Discussion & ResultHeidegger’s critique of inauthentic existence is firmly rooted in his overarching ontological framework. He characterizes everyday life as predominantly dominated by unexamined conformity to societal norms, which obfuscates the deeper truths of human existence. Such a mode of being fosters dependence on external validation and predefined roles, thereby estranging individuals from their authentic potential. A pivotal pathway to overcoming this alienation is Heidegger’s concept of "Being-towards-death," which underscores mortality as a key enabler of existential reflection and authenticity. By acknowledging the finitude of existence, individuals can disengage from the confines of social conformity and cultivate self-awareness that reveals genuine possibilities. Furthermore, Heidegger’s notion of "Being-with-others" (Mitsein) accentuates the fundamentally relational character of human existence. He posits that the interplay of interpersonal relationships provides the context within which individuals construct their identities. However, the predominance of societal expectations often undermines individual agency, perpetuating the condition of fallenness. Heidegger advocates for critically engaging with these societal frameworks to reconfigure one's interactions with the world and others, thereby fostering conditions for an authentic existence. Heidegger’s treatment of temporality further elucidates the existential structures shaping Dasein’s engagement with the world. Unlike the commodified, linear understanding of time prevalent in modernity, Heidegger conceptualizes temporality as a deeply personal and dynamic phenomenon, interwoven with the past, present, and future. By reclaiming this existential temporality, individuals can resist the alienation imposed by technological rationality and consumerist paradigms, thereby redefining their relational priorities and existential commitments.ConclusionHeidegger’s philosophical exploration of the social and everyday life offers an incisive critique of modernity’s dehumanizing tendencies and its influence on individual existence. His emphasis on authenticity, relationality, and temporality provides critical insights for addressing the socio-cultural challenges of contemporary life. By cultivating an acute awareness of mortality, time, and the restrictive nature of normative structures, individuals can transcend the state of fallenness to pursue a more profound and authentic mode of being. This study concludes that Heidegger’s ontological framework not only exposes the mechanisms through which societal systems shape individual existence but also illuminates pathways for reclaiming authentic living amidst the complexities of a mediated, modern world.
Research Paper
Hojatollah Rahimi
Abstract
Extended abstractIntroductionBergson and Deleuze were pioneer philosophers of time and space in the 20th century. Bergson and Deleuze distinguish between two kinds of time: spatialized time and real time or duration. Spatialized time is a time in which conscious states can be counted. This kind of time ...
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Extended abstractIntroductionBergson and Deleuze were pioneer philosophers of time and space in the 20th century. Bergson and Deleuze distinguish between two kinds of time: spatialized time and real time or duration. Spatialized time is a time in which conscious states can be counted. This kind of time has been called spatialized time by Bergson and Deleuze because space is quantitative and countable. In contrast, real time or duration is the succession of our conscious states when we, as living beings, refrain from separating our present state from former states. Conscious states, in terms of duration philosophy, are qualitative and uncountable. Despite the central importance of the concept of duration, it seems that the concept of space occupies a marginal place in Bergson and Deleuze's philosophy. Duration, according to Bergson, is a nonspatial concept so that we can imagine it without space. Duration, as Deleuze conceptualizes it, is, like naturing nature, cause in itself. It is, according to Deleuze, the cause of its internal process of differentiation and qualitative multiplicity. Duration, conceptualized in such a way, proposes an atomic, individualistic and free-from-social-relation perspective to encounter duration. Although this perspective makes it possible to speak of “multiplicity of organization”, it is not able to provide a complementary organizational movement in the opposite direction, i.e. from a multiplicity of organization to unity of organization. Accordingly, the duration divides itself into divergent lines of differentiation and multiplicity. Materials & MethodsThe strategy of this paper was to play Bergson against Deleuze and Deleuze against Bergson to highlight the place of space in the philosophy of duration, and to introduce duration as a spatial construction. For this, this paper, following Deleuze, considered duration as a spatial simultaneity. Also, it, following Bergson, has argued that not only the cause of duration differentiation situates in space, but also space is the cause of duration differentiation. To do this, this paper, first analysed the metaphysical nature of space in Bergson's philosophy. In the next section, it was argued that space as a quantitative multiplicity is the cause of qualitative multiplicity and differentiation. Finally, in the third section, following Deleuze, the duration will be considered as a spatial simultaneity of moments. Discussion & ResultThis paper argued that Bergson has distinguished spatialized time from real time or duration only in reference to two different spatial metaphors. In other words, in transition from spatialized time to duration, he has replaced one spatial metaphor with another. Spatialized time is conceptualized as a separated succession of conscious states on a geometrical line, while duration is imagined as a non-separated succession of the moments on a geometrical point. Conscious states in terms of spatialized time are in juxtaposition with each other, while they all interpenetrate each other from the point of view of duration.The latter metaphor is close to Deleuze's interpretation of the concept of duration. Duration, for Deleuze, is a spatial simultaneity of conscious states. To penetrate each other, moments need a point as a centre, and the centre necessarily produces its margins. The dialectics of centrality, i.e., the dialectics between the centre and margin, indicates that the concept of duration not only refers to the spatio-temporal simultaneity of moments but also the marginalization of certain moments and the centralization of others. Bergson’s famous metaphor of the cone supports this centre-margin-based interpretation. This paper has argued that the processes of centralization and marginalization are the results of socio-spatial construction.Although duration, according to Deleuze, is a spatial concept, he ignores the causal effects of space on the process of differentiation. Duration, for Deleuze, is the cause of its internal differentiation. Duration, for him, is like a naturing nature and plays the role of an entirely independent variable from space. Space is treated as though it does not play any role in the qualitative differentiation of duration. In contrast to Deleuze, Bergson believed that the cause of the differentiation situates in space as a quantitative multiplicity. One way to speak of space as the cause of qualitative differentiation is to base it on relations between durations. This entails considering a particular duration as a moving object that moves forward unceasingly alongside different divergent lines of differentiation that continuously change their spatial arrangement in relation to each other. Depending on what kind of arrangements, a particular duration experiences different ways of differentiation. Accordingly, it can be argued that duration is not only in space but also by space. ConclusionThis way of conceptualization allows us to highlight the place of space in the philosophy of duration, to speak of duration as a space of politics, and to transit it from a private sphere to a public sphere (i.e. socio-spatial constructionism). This way of conceptualization limits the freedom left to duration in Bergson's and Deleuze's philosophies.
Research Paper
Sadreddin Taheri
Abstract
IntroductionAdoration of the Magi is one of the first narratives depicted in Christian art, which has been the focus of artists before other scenes of the New Testament, and one of the more important icons among representations of the birth of Jesus. After the formalization of the religion of Christ ...
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IntroductionAdoration of the Magi is one of the first narratives depicted in Christian art, which has been the focus of artists before other scenes of the New Testament, and one of the more important icons among representations of the birth of Jesus. After the formalization of the religion of Christ in the 4th century AD, commemorating the coming of the Magi as Epiphany on January 6 became an important part of the Christmas celebration. The Church Fathers interpreted the story of the Magi in the light of Old Testament messianic prophecies. In the 5th century AD, this event's icons spread from the catacombs to the public spaces, and magi appeared in the decorations of the first great churches. Finding the historical roots of the formation of this narrative can be beneficial for understanding the first connections between this new religion and ancient Iranian thought. Material & MethodsThe present article is a historical case study with qualitative methods and documentary data; which tries to find the origins of this narrative in the historical writings and to suggest a reasoned interpretation of its importance to the Church Fathers. Qualitative research is a type of research that aims to gather and analyze non-numerical (descriptive) data to gain an understanding of individuals' social reality, including understanding their attitudes, beliefs, and motivations. Case Studies are a qualitative design in which the researcher explores in depth a program, event, activity, process, or one or more individuals. The case(s) are bound by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period. Documentary research is the use of outside sources, and documents, to support the viewpoint or argument of an academic work. The process of documentary research often involves some or all of conceptualizing, using, and assessing documents. All the data of this article is collected from the first-hand texts of the writers and commentators of the Christian religion. Discussion of ResultsFrom the Median period onwards, magi have been known in Iran’s history and culture as agents of religious rituals, performers of prayer and sacrifice ceremonies, soothsayers, court advisors, princes' tutors, and guardians of shrines and kings’ tombs. In addition, written sources show that they were also famous in the neighboring lands of Iran for their wisdom, knowledge of the future, and excellence in astrology. In the Gospel of Matthew, magi begin a journey from the East to praise the newborn baby Jesus in Bethlehem. The present article tries to find the origins of this narrative in historical writings and to suggest a reasoned interpretation of its importance to the Church Fathers. Most biblical scholars agree that Matthew's version was written after the destruction of Jerusalem and addressed to Jews and neo-Christians under Roman rule.The Gospel of Matthew describes the coming of the Magi from the East to praise the baby Jesus. According to predominant scholarly views, it was written in the last quarter of the first century AD by an anonymous Jew familiar with technical legal aspects of scripture to appeal to Jewish audiences. Therefore, it is full of links between the life of Jesus and the prophecies of the Old Testament prophets. Under Roman rule, this text recounts a difficult time for both Jews and Christians. Rome, which conquered and destroyed Jerusalem during this period, failed in an attrition battle with the Persians.The opening part of this Gospel seems to be born out of the suffering of that era and was written to provide a political policy and give hope to the new believers. Therefore, after conveying the lineage of Jesus to the famous kings of Judah, it used the testimony of the Magi from the East in the court of the Roman ruler to prove the legitimacy of the kingdom of Jesus for the Jews. Some of the Bible commentators have considered the origin of these travelers to be Iran; The country that freed the Jews from the Babylonian captivity once before, was sheltering the Jews and Christians, and was at war with their common enemy. The memorial of adoration of the Magi on Epiphany still has for many Christians the same powerful political function that it had for the Gospel of Matthew's author, Tertullian, Justin, and Pope Leo I in the first centuries. ConclusionsIt seems that the first part of the Gospel of Matthew is not only born from the conditions of such times but also tries to provide a political policy for the new believers; First by mentioning the genealogy that introduces Jesus as the descendant of the famous kings of Judah, and then by the testimony of wise men from the East in the presence of the Roman ruler about the rightness of Jesus for the kingdom of the Jews. That is why some commentators of the Bible have considered these travelers to be Persian magi; Men renowned for their wisdom and foresight, from a country that once freed the Jews from Babylonian captivity; was sheltering Jews and Christians, and was at war against their common enemy. In the following centuries, they were called kings and wise men instead of the Magi, and intending to link them with the messianic prophecies of the Old Testament, they made different origins for them, which were neither in the East nor the Magi's homeland. Now the Christians consider them to be three saints, named Melchior (perhaps from Hebrew: king of light), Balthasar (perhaps from Babylonian: God preserves the king), and Gaspar (perhaps from ancient Persian: treasure bearer); Magnificent names worthy of kings of the East.
Research Paper
Seyed Majid Saberi Fathi
Abstract
In Europe, Modernity begins with the Renaissance and it is generally the result of four developments: a) the replacement of human relative values such as freedom, equality, and individualism for “church religion”; b) the emergence and strengthening of the scientific movement and ...
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In Europe, Modernity begins with the Renaissance and it is generally the result of four developments: a) the replacement of human relative values such as freedom, equality, and individualism for “church religion”; b) the emergence and strengthening of the scientific movement and scientific methods; c) the belief in reason and rationality and the socio-cultural effects of technology; d) the belief in “progress” (Ameli, 2017: 10). Some of the results of these principles are:Humans will be able to solve all current and future problems of humanity and find answers to all current issues or issues that will arise in the future.According to principle (a), in modernity the world is meaningless; there is a belief that the existing meanings are meanings derived from Abrahamic or natural religions that must be changed. Therefore, “modern man” must create new meanings.The above principles have led to the identification of two things in terms of validity and credibility: one is modernization and the other is modernity -which is both a subject in the humanities and social sciences, a historical period (the Modern era), and a set of specific sociocultural norms, attitudes, and practices that emerged in the continuation of the Renaissance, in the "Age of Reason" in the 17th century, and then the Enlightenment in the 18th century-. The postmodern era is the continuation of the modern era, and in this article, modernity is considered.Reflections on modernity and its consequences take these principles into account. A point that has attracted the attention of Western thinkers since the early 20th century is the difference between modernity and modernization. Modern natural sciences are successful because of current technology and prosperity (modernization), but they have also given rise to sociocultural and normative value problems. In this context, Francis Fukuyama, in an article that deals with the feedback on his book The End of History (1992), acknowledges that the end of history is essentially an argument about the endangerment of the normative basis of modern liberal democracy due to the philosophical “crisis of modernity,” -first articulated by Nietzsche and Heidegger and then continued by postmodern thinkers-; not about the empirical conditions of the world (Fukuyama, 1995). He considers the empirical and technological success and normative crisis, as modernity's main insoluble internal contradiction (logical inconsistency) (Ibid.). In consequence, Nietzsche and Heidegger condemned modernity by calling the modern man a “bewildered human” and an “enchanted human of modernity". Therefore, this essay begins by stating the objections of Nietzsche and Heidegger on the normative values of modernity.Materials & MethodsIn this article, we take a fundamental look at the imperfections of modernity. Thus, the critique of modernity is carried out with the foundations and assumptions of “modernity”. In response to the question of this article, we use a philosophical analytical method to extract the objections of modern science and modernity from Western philosophers' words and the impossibility of making philosophical rules from science.Discussion & Result As mentioned at the beginning, one of the main beliefs in modernity is that “modernity” can solve all human problems and this task has been assigned to modern human science. Therefore, one of the goals of modern human sciences is to deconstruction and de-territorialize old concepts (ecclesiastical knowledge or, in the new claims, Abrahamic religions and natural religions) and to produce new meanings and territories using rules derived from empirical and natural sciences. Examining the validity of this claim is the main question of this article. It is necessary to say here that these new and modern concepts appear deceptively logical; in some cases, they even have a scientific and empirical explanation; however, in fact, and contrary to expectations of modernity, they have created insoluble problems for modern societies - from abstract and intellectual problems to behavioral and practical issues in the life of modern man - to the point that in an interview, Michel Foucault announces the "death of man" (Foucault, 1966).It is impossible to make philosophical rules from modern science. Because, modern natural science theories are often incompatible with each other, also, some new theories contradict old theories. In addition to these objections, modern human science theories have an internal inconsistency due to having more ad-hoc principles in there. An important note is that humans and material beings, in general, cannot be omnipotent, thus they cannot solve all human problems, so an immaterial (metaphysical) being is necessary. In the history of modernity, especially in recent decades, the consequence of modernity in modern society shows that modern science in solving some human and natural problems has created numerous newer ones. Therefore, modern science cannot be an emancipation and solver of human issues.ConclusionPerhaps this is the question of many readers: "All this is true, what should be done now?" What is available to us now other than modern science for solving current problems? Although this is the subject of new research. However, it is useful to note that: first, some of the current problems are based on the entry of modernity and the application of modern science in our society. Therefore, we are also involved in the issues of modernity to a large extent. The experience of the last few decades regarding economic problems in our country and the world casts doubt using on modern science to solve them. Second, in countries that modernity has realized, there are many unresolved social, cultural, and economic problems, and the “welfare state” has also faced challenges (Fukuyama, 2014:ch34). Therefore, given the fundamental weaknesses and objections of the theories of modern science, they should not be given meaningful authenticity and should be considered as expressions of how “happenings” are, and nothing more. There is also a need for a deep and fundamental look at the “developing and excellence in the human science”; That is, it should not be reduced to “developing in modern human science.” Of course, the discussion for developing in human science is a detailed discussion and a topic for further research.
Research Paper
Mojtaba Etemadinia
Abstract
IntroductionReflection on the nature and functions of language, and its relationship with thought, although raised in some works of past philosophers, has been mainly in the realm of analytical philosophers' interests in the 20th century, although the leading figures of continental philosophy have also ...
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IntroductionReflection on the nature and functions of language, and its relationship with thought, although raised in some works of past philosophers, has been mainly in the realm of analytical philosophers' interests in the 20th century, although the leading figures of continental philosophy have also occasionally discussed it, with Heidegger undoubtedly one of them. Heidegger's reflections on this matter can be an interesting topic due to his unconventional perceptions and encounters. One of these unconventional encounters is the reflection on the relationship between poetry and authentic philosophical thought. The poetic nature of Heidegger's thoughts in the later period of his intellectual life, which is intertwined with the concept of art, is something that has attracted the attention and criticism of many experts. Materials & MethodsThis article is an attempt to explain and regulate Heidegger's view on poetic thinking, which itself is based on his particular understanding of the nature of language and poetry. Therefore, after reviewing Heidegger's views on the revealing property of language, the nature of poetry is explored from his point of view to provide a context for understanding poetic thinking and distinguishing it from calculative and meditative thinking. In writing the text, using a descriptive-analytical method, I first tried to provide an accurate picture and description of the topic by referring to Heidegger's works and some commentators, and then try to analyze and regulate it. Discussion & ResultIn the later period of his thought, Heidegger deeply explored the subject of language as the abode of Being, focusing on it. Man, who is now in the position of the shepherd of Being, the guardian of the authentic disclosure of beings, attends to his duty of guardianship through language, which invites us to the essence of things (Heidegger, 1971c: 216). In his numerous remarks about language, and by referring to his particular understanding of the meaning of Logos among the early Greeks, Heidegger has shown that the communicative function of language itself is rooted in the revealing property of language. In this way, contrary to the common belief that we humans are the users of language, it is language that has dominion over us.Heidegger distinguishes between the concept of utterance, which refers to the revealing property of language and constitutes its true nature, and explaining, talking, and issuing judgments, which are shown in the form of spoken and written propositions and phrases. Accordingly, it is possible for someone to express a truth while remaining silent about it, and on the other hand, it is possible for someone to speak about a truth while not expressing anything about it (Heidegger, 1971d: 122-123). Considering this distinction in the face of "Being" leads to the conclusion that although we cannot speak of "Being" as an object and issue logical judgments about it, we can nevertheless express it. The work of art and poetry are clear examples of such an expression, and poetry, in the meantime, is the founder and preserver of beings in the form of words. Thus, from Heidegger's point of view, poetry is the manifestation of the occurrence of truth. Heidegger believes that all arts, in that they are the event of the appearance of truth, are inherently poetry or Dichtung (Heidegger, 1993b: 197). Since, from Heidegger's point of view, any provision of the possibility of the occurrence of truth in the realm of language is poetry, therefore, philosophy, as far as it is in the service of revealing beings, is similar to poetry. Poetry apparently is a play of imagination and dream and looks at something unreal, while, in Heidegger's opinion, what is real is reflected in poetry (Heidegger, 2000: 62). In this way, poetry, whose essence is to lay the foundation of truth and preserve it in the realm of language, provides a foundation for the emergence of authentic philosophical thought.From Heidegger's point of view, poetic creativity and innovation, as the transcendent origin of reason, elevate it beyond the level of conventional and everyday knowledge (Heidegger, 1991, 3: 96-97). The poetic nature of reason in Heidegger gives a special definition to his favorite and different kind of thinking, which, on the one hand, has a fundamental distinction from conventional philosophical thinking, and on the other hand, it is also distinguished in a way from the philosophical thinking he has in mind. The types of thinking in Heidegger include a hierarchical structure, at the bottom of which is calculative thinking, which is based on a present-at-hand method and looks at beings from a limited horizon, and at the top of this series is essential thinking, which is focused on the question of "Being" and its revelation. In Heidegger's works, the concept of fundamental thinking in the third decade of the twentieth century approaches the concept of poetry and gives meaning to a special kind of authentic thinking called poetic thinking. Thought and thoughtful poetry are sometimes called Denken or "meditative thinking" (Heidegger, 1966: 53) and Andenken or "recollective thinking" (Heidegger, 1998c: 314) in Heidegger's works, respectively. Poetic thinking seeks to reveal the origin and the hidden place of things. This way of thinking is the namer and founder of the sacred and the manifestor of the mystery, which it keeps as a mystery and an unnamed truth.Although authentic meditative thinking, along with poetic thinking, is a mechanism for thinking about the mystery and approaching it, there are significant differences between them. Poetry and also the poetic thinking desired by Heidegger have found a clearer expression through some concepts in his later philosophy, such as the dualities of "dwelling-homelessness" and "releasement-madness". ConclusionHeidegger's accepted thinking, which he called essential thinking in the first period of his intellectual life, was interpreted in the 1930s in light of his particular understanding of the concept of poetry and gave meaning to poetic thinking. Although some have considered meditative or fundamental thinking to be the same as poetic thinking, there are significant differences between them. Poetic thinking, unlike meditative thinking, looks at an intuitive, unmediated, and positive encounter with the sacred and the mystery. In addition, poetic thinking, in comparison with meditative thinking, like an influential work of art in comparison with a collection of theoretical works, has a more complete, fundamental, and tangible impact on the individual lives of human beings. In sum, the relationship between fundamental thinking and poetic thinking is like the relationship between "knowing" and "seeing". Poetic thinking, by leaving things to themselves, provides a field for them to reveal themselves as they are. In Heidegger's view, by leaving things to themselves to manifest, we become authentically residents of the earth, and this is realized in the realm of poetry.
Research Paper
Hasan Tavan; Kamal Pouladi; Majid Tavasoliroknabadi
Abstract
Introduction
The rationality discussed in this paper is a concept primarily employed in the 20th century by the German sociologist Max Weber. It largely encompasses the dominance over and disenchantment of the external world. Following Weber, Jürgen Habermas, tracing Weber’s disenchantment ...
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Introduction
The rationality discussed in this paper is a concept primarily employed in the 20th century by the German sociologist Max Weber. It largely encompasses the dominance over and disenchantment of the external world. Following Weber, Jürgen Habermas, tracing Weber’s disenchantment revived the concept of rationality, through the evolution of forms of consciousness.
The paper’s key question is: How did Western political thought in the modern era become rationalized based on disenchantment and the transformation of forms of consciousness? Our hypothesis is that Western political thought, through a rapture from medieval theology and its connection to philosophical consciousness, was able to rationalize politics. Simultaneously, the prevalence of the empirical method as the dominant scientific approach in the modern era, as well as the rationalization of Christian theology, paved the way for the formation of political rationality. It was then that the state fell from its divine origin and became a human institution. While in the Middle Ages the main goal of states was to follow God’s commands, in the modern era, and in the vision of thinkers like Hobbes, the state became a tool for the preservation of lives.
Materials & Methods
The present research focuses on the rationalization of political thought in post-Renaissance Europe. Following the transformation in the field of epistemology and the introduction of the empirical method into this field, the religious practice of Christian people also underwent a significant change. The transformation in epistemology, along with the break from the Christian theology of the Middle Ages, also influenced political thought, and this field moved towards rationality. Methodologically, our work is based on an interpretive approach. Proponents of this approach believe that realities and social relationships are not independent and are considered constructed by humans. The interpretive approach became prevalent in the 1980s as an alternative to the positivist method. The interpretive researcher seeks understanding, which is achieved through empathy with the subject or individuals being studied.
Discussion & Result
The rationalization of Western civilization began in the realm of scientific knowledge and transformations in Christian theology, and then extended to political thought as well. The theory of knowledge (Epistemology) in the Christian Middle Ages did not give much importance to empirical and observational methods. However, with the occurrence of the Renaissance, the scientific and inductive method gained high credibility. This transformation began with astronomy and spread to other areas of knowledge. In this transition process, Aristotelian physics and the Ptolemaic geocentric model collapsed, and empirical methods and mathematical analyses took their place. These changes had a significant impact on people’s worldview. They realized that earthly rules govern the planets, celestial bodies, and even the functioning of the body. Therefore, the new science, based on observation and experience, discarded metaphysical assumptions and magic, contributing to the formation of a rational vision.
Another transformation occurred in the realm of religion; in the sense that gradually, with the emergence of humanism, a break from orthodox Christianity emerged. In medieval society, various areas of knowledge, such as philosophy, religion, and ethics, were not separate from each other and were understood in relation to each other and in relation to Christian theology. As a result, political thought was also discussed under the umbrella of religion. Saint Augustine, an influential Christian thinker, following the collectivist tradition of Aristotle, stated that humans must necessarily be members of the church for salvation. From his point of view, individual will did not play a role in human’s eternal happiness, but with the entry of Christian humanism, these ideas cracked. Christian humanists, such as Petrarch and Erasmus, emphasized individual will and introspection in human happiness. Martin Luther later emphasized the individual aspect of salvation and stated that people, based on the right of self-preservation, could resist tyrannical rulers. Later, the emphasis on the individual and self-preservation paved the way for the formation of social contract theory. Spinoza, from the perspective of political theology, paved the way for the rationalization of political thought. He said that government is a social contract between the people and the ruler. But the person who played the most significant role in this field was Thomas Hobbes. Hobbes, emphasizing the natural right of self-preservation, considered government to be a human construct. He began with the state of nature and described it as a violent and frightening situation, where people live in fear and distrust. Therefore, they submit to a social contract to escape this situation. With this contract, they transfer all their powers to a ruler. In fact, the first and most important duty of government is defined as protecting the lives and property of individuals against the encroachments of others. Thus, Hobbes, using the natural law of self-preservation, reached a social contract and emptied the government of its metaphysical content, transforming it into a secular matter.
Conclusion
Rationality in the West progressed in three areas: knowledge, religion, and politics. In the area of knowledge, with the beginning of the Renaissance, the use of empirical and observational methods invalidated Aristotelian physics and the Ptolemaic geocentric model. In the realm of theology, Christian humanists, such as Petrarch and Erasmus, emphasized individual will and happiness, broke away from the collectivist tradition of the church, and paved the way for individualism. These changes also affected the realm of political thought. Thomas Hobbes, using the natural law of self-preservation, considered government to be a human construct, whose primary duty is to protect the lives and property of individuals. With this transformation, the disenchantment of the realm of political thought was also completed.
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