Research Paper
malek shojaei
Abstract
1-IntroductionHans Diebreder "Bibliography of Islamic Philosophy" deals with the historiography of Islamic philosophy, from the time of publication of the first work by De Boer until our time. He has analyzed the assumptions of Orientalists in the historiography of Islamic philosophy and outlined the ...
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1-IntroductionHans Diebreder "Bibliography of Islamic Philosophy" deals with the historiography of Islamic philosophy, from the time of publication of the first work by De Boer until our time. He has analyzed the assumptions of Orientalists in the historiography of Islamic philosophy and outlined the history of Orientalist writings about Islamic philosophy and expressed its strengths and weaknesses. Daiber considers the most important features of the Orientalist approach (such as De Boer, Goldziher, Max Horton, etc.) in the historiography of Islamic philosophy to be neglecting the interaction of philosophy with Islamic words, emphasizing Platonic elements over Aristotelian elements, and paying little attention to the religious context. Islamic philosophy and exaggeration about the role of ethnic (Semitic) elements in the development of Islamic philosophy. Sharif, Nasr, Mehdi Khan, Tawfiq Ebrahim and others) believes that these works are more descriptive than critical and historical and in those historical-comparative studies about the Greek background of Islamic philosophy are generally ignored and exaggerated emphasis is placed on the originality of Islamic philosophy. considers it to be the reaction of Muslim scholars to the European-centered historiographical approach to Islamic philosophy. (ibid., xxviii).2-Materials & MethodsDr. Davari's reading of Islamic philosophy and its position in contemporary history and culture, whose main paradigm is the modern and Europe-centered discourse, while paying attention to the status and nature of contemporary Western philosophy and culture, tries to explore the possibilities of Islamic philosophy in dialogue with issues and Think about contemporary culture. This attention to Islamic philosophy has existed in different intellectual periods of Dr. Davari, including in books such as Farabi, the founder of Islamic philosophy (1354, first edition) and Maqam of philosophy in the period of Islamic Iranian history (1st edition, 1356) and later in our book and the history of philosophy Islamic (1389). According to Dr. Davari's analysis in his book "Ma and the History of Islamic Philosophy" (2009).3-Discussion & ResultThe survey of Islamic philosophy was directed to the sky rather than to the earth. He quoted Cicero as saying that Socrates brought philosophy from heaven to earth, and that Socrates has two talents: one earthly and the other heavenward. The first talent realized the modernity system and the second talent achieved the return to the sky (p. 25). Philosophy in the west of the Islamic world took the first path with Ibn Rushd, and Asan was placed on the path of Spinoza, Hume and Kant, and the second talent was actualized in the east of the Islamic world, especially in Iran. But now that modernity has fallen into disrepair in its own land and experts are talking about the weakness of its principles, the modernists have taken modernity and its philosophy as their goal and blame the philosophies that did not lead to it. This criticism is caused by an abstract understanding of the wisdom of the Enlightenment period and the desire to achieve it. Every fruit on a tree and every tree has its roots in the land that provides the conditions for planting and harvesting that tree. Philosophy cannot be cut and separated from its own world and it can be taken anywhere and kept fresh there. New philosophy is from that world of modernity and Christian and Islamic philosophy is from that world of Christianity and Islam.The type of metaphilosophy (METAPHILOSOPHY) and the perception we have about "philosophy of philosophy" are decisive in the reading we present of the position of Islamic philosophy in the contemporary world. In Dr. Davari's metaphilosophy, philosophy is not a set of correct rules about the inherent symptoms of existence, but rather a historical thinking. If the philosophers of the Islamic world had interfered in philosophy due to considerations, their philosophy would not have balance, proportion, and order, and it would not find durability and historical validity, but it would be an incoherent set of discussions and issues, which, because it did not have a solid foundation, would be carried away by the smallest wind of opposition. Therefore, the work of philosophy in the Islamic world did not end with the transfer and translation of the works of the predecessor philosophers, but this historical approach to Greek thought with a new interpretation that started from the beginning led to the emergence of another form of philosophy. The philosophers of the Islamic world considered the problems of Greek philosophy with They interpreted new principles and established a philosophy that, like any other form of philosophy, was an absolute and universal philosophy in the eyes of its owners. The division of philosophy according to the Greek, Middle Ages, Islamic and New eras has been done in the new era. In addition to this division, the thousand-year-old philosophy of the Islamic world can be called the Islamic-Iranian philosophy. Islamic philosophy, like the Greek philosophy, which considered the consistency of the just (human) Medina, thought about the place of man and his life in a divine but rational system.4-Conclusion The philosophers of the Islamic world learned from the Greeks the concepts of existence, nature, cause, causality, step, essence, width, change, movement, stillness, civil system, and moral virtues from the Greeks, and to some opinions and thoughts of Alexandrians and in general The debates that took place in the history of philosophy in the five hundred years after Plotinus were more or less accessible. The result of his discussion is that, firstly: Greek philosophy observes the perfection of human existence in Medina and guides the education of the people of Medina. Second: Islamic philosophy. It did not emerge by manipulating the opinions of Plato, Aristotle and the Neo-Platonists, but it is the first great and important intersection between two cultures and philosophies that are connected with the spirit of the Iranian-Islamic world. and it has been with this talent and desire that he has tried and worked hard with philosophy in the field of religious thinking. Fourth: Philosophers of the Islamic world interpreted Greek philosophy with regard to the horizon that was opened with Islam, and of course, in this interpretation, they did not ignore the wisdom of their ancestors in Iran before Islam. Ibn Sina spoke of Eastern wisdom, and Suhravardi considered the essence of his philosophy to have been learned from Khosravani's wisdom, and finally, he was involved in the consistency of philosophy of the Islamic period of ancient Iran, Sufism and mysticism from the beginning, and this involvement and presence gradually reached its peak in Mulla Sadra and his followers. If it is possible to stand somewhere in the current history of the world and have a dialogue with the philosophers of the past, those philosophers no longer belong to the past but are contemporary. The difference between philosophies and science is that science depends on its history in any case. Ptolemy has known history and the world, and for this reason his book is no longer taught, but Plato can be a contemporary philosopher. This ruling is also true for Farabi, Suhrawardi, Ibn Sina, and Mulla Sadra. If we read and memorize the texts of these philosophers and teach them to others, they will repeat the learned words and expressions. It is obvious that the text belongs to the past, but if, as Leo Strauss said, we read the hieroglyphics or, to be more precise, the gaps between the statements and the contents between the lines, and by reading them we reflect on the text, that text comes alive in time and speaks to its reader. All philosophers have unsaid and unwritten things. The task of the successor philosopher is to search for the unsaid of the predecessor. In Islamic philosophy, how should one search for the unsaid when a philosophy has traveled a thousand-year path, what path has it not taken and which words are left unsaid?
Research Paper
seyed mostafa shahraeini; Maziyar Raissi
Abstract
IntroductionJansenism was a theological sect reviving two important Augustinan doctrines: the corruption of all of human cognitive and volitional capacities due to the Original Sin, and recognizing God’s grace as its one and only redeemer with no role for human deeds, which was a kind of thoroughgoing ...
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IntroductionJansenism was a theological sect reviving two important Augustinan doctrines: the corruption of all of human cognitive and volitional capacities due to the Original Sin, and recognizing God’s grace as its one and only redeemer with no role for human deeds, which was a kind of thoroughgoing determinism. Blaise Pascal who was completely adhere to this specific theological background, tried to use his ingenuity in order to write an apological work in defense of this interpretation of Christianity in a posthumously published book called “Pensées”. In an important and famous fragment of the work, known as “The Wager”, Pascal asks his readers things that seem to require free will, for example, he wants them to gamble in favor of the existence of God, to weaken their passions and to act and live as if God exists. The same difficulty, of course, may be raised against the very act of writing an apology itself. It made so many researchers believe that this fragment entails a kind of argument in favor of the existence of God that we may call it, “The Wager Argument”. But if we bear in mind the theological background of Pascal, we will find that although we can definitely have a separate “Wager argument”, but “Pascal’s Wager” is not the case and cannot be. Hence, in order to distinguish “Pascal’s Wager” from “the Wager Argument”, we should reread the former Wager” in its own theological context. MethodologyOur methodology involves not just an abstract and conceptual analysis of the subject-matter but also entails a careful and precise rereading of the “Pascal’s Wager” in the original text with its relation to the other fragments of the “Pensées”. Again, we bear the Augustine and Jansen’s theological doctrines in mind, which are the key to the best way of grasping appropriate knowledge of what “Pascal’s Wager” means in its context.FindingsBy studying the fragment which in known as “The Wager”, in the same manner as done by other researchers, what we find is nothing but a series of inner inconsistencies and contradictions. The fragment persuades us, by using our free will, to gamble in favor of the existence of God whereas at the same time faith is only through God’s grace achieved and is not up to us at all. The fragment asks us to weaken our passions but we cannot do so because we lack the proper control over our passions and desires even if we wanted to do. It, having presupposed our free will, advises us to take a religious way of life and act as if we believe in God but this presupposition of our agency over life and actions is not justifiable with regard to the Pascal’s theological devotions. These inconsistencies and contradictions can even get more clear when we consider that the very act of writing apologetic work by Pascal in order to defend the religious faith and persuade people to initiate into the religious community, contradicts with total determinism with regard to the religious faith only because of the divine grace. If Pascal is going to defend an Augustinian-Jansenistian version of Christian faith, then he cannot invoke the free will in his account, a Jesuit approach to the faith to which Pascal definitely opposes. However, by scrutinizing the Wager fragment, we will find that a few prefaces precede it one of which deals with the way our cognitive faculty works that leads us to our principal cognitive faculty i.e. “the Heart”. Pascal uses this principal faculty in all three sides of cognitive, volitional and affective areas with special emphasis on its dual function, to say, the heart is in a continuous oscillation between the two extremities of the spectrum, e.g. determination and freewill. The heart cannot find a fixed point or side with one of the extremities (e.g. freedom/determinism or, certainty/skepticism) and otherwise if it could, we should call it “reason” not “heart”. The dual function of heart demands the same continuous oscillation; the feature of humankind which implies lack of unity which can be counted as a punishment of the Original Sin. Pascal used this faculty deliberately to point out the human dual character its best explanation of which he believed is the Augustinian-Jansenistian account of Christianity.Conclusion“Pascal’s Wager”, in contrast to “The Wager Argument”, is not a call for free choice in favor of the existence of God and Pascal’s Augustinian-Jansenistian theological background doesn’t allow it either. Apparent inconsistencies and contradictions in “Pascal’s Wager” are completely and deliberately used by Pascal with his reference to faculty of “Heart” in connection with its dual function.
Research Paper
Hadi Salehi; Sroush Arya
Abstract
Extended Abstract:
Introduction
The field of political interaction, domestic or international, is fundamentally driven by human agency, with language serving as the primary tool for interaction. While various social science theories, including those in political science and international relations, ...
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Extended Abstract:
Introduction
The field of political interaction, domestic or international, is fundamentally driven by human agency, with language serving as the primary tool for interaction. While various social science theories, including those in political science and international relations, can illuminate the context surrounding the formation of these linguistic interactions, social and political analysis cannot be confined solely to this peripheral, structural level. Political analysts continually encounter texts, statements, and speeches, necessitating a methodological framework for analyzing these linguistic interactions to achieve a clear understanding. The critical discourse analysis (CDA) approach offers a well-equipped methodological toolbox. Familiarity with CDA can aid in comprehending linguistic interactions within the political arena. Additionally, CDA possesses a highly systematic understanding of the discourse arena, introducing discourses as creators of worlds with specific rules of engagement and power dynamics. Each discourse constructs a world with its own set of rules and interactions. Human and institutional agents are represented within this world, each occupying a specific position and wielding a certain degree of power. The specific type of power relationship between agents is established based on the way the world is represented in each discourse. By dissecting discourses based on these functions, social science researchers can gain a clearer understanding of the language games and the meanings associated with each signifier or word within these games.
Materials & Methods
This article employs a critical discourse analysis (CDA) framework to investigate the interplay of language and power within the realm of political interaction. CDA, with its focus on the social and political functions of language, provides a robust set of tools for examining how discourse constructs meaning, shapes identities, and distributes power. 1 Specifically, this analysis will draw upon key tenets of CDA, such as: (1) examining the use of language, including metaphors, framing, and narrative techniques; (2) identifying key concepts, arguments, and underlying assumptions within political texts; and (3) analyzing how power relations are constructed and maintained through language. By applying these tools, this study aims to uncover the underlying power dynamics and ideological assumptions embedded within political discourse
The conclusion of the Cold War era has arguably transformed the underlying principles of international relations and the criteria guiding foreign policy decision-making. During the Cold War, state interactions were inevitably overshadowed by the confrontation between the two ideological blocs of the West and the East. Consequently, the entire world was divided into two, or at most three, blocs (considering the Non-Aligned Movement). Foreign policy decision-making prioritized security and power considerations, further influenced by the ideological identity a state adopted within the competitive bipolar Cold War environment. Broadly speaking, theories focused on the structural level, most notably neo-realism or structural realism, aligned with the objective and ontological reality of the international system. As Kenneth Waltz argued, state behavior in the practical arena was also determined by the influence of macro-level or international system variables.
Waltz, who employs a structural approach that relies solely on macro-level or international system-level variables in theorizing international relations, considers any international analysis that attempts to explain phenomena using micro or domestic-level factors to be reductionist. However, Waltz himself, widely regarded as the most legitimate theorist of international politics, acknowledges the value of domestic-level variables in explaining and analyzing foreign policy (but not international policy).
The end of the Cold War ushered in a more flexible and pluralistic era. No longer was there a single, global, security-oriented agenda that compelled each state actor to choose sides and align with one of three potential alliances. Political leaders, at both the regional subsystem and international system levels, enjoyed greater freedom to make decisions based on economic interests, as well as identity and civilizational elements. It is no coincidence that Huntington's thesis of the clash of civilizations emerged in response to Fukuyama's thesis of the end of history, both arising in the post-Cold War period. While Fukuyama emphasized the dominance of a single ideology (liberalism) across the globe, Huntington contends that the defining characteristic for identifying nation-states, as well as the source of hostility and competition in this era, has shifted from ideology to civilization.
Discussion & Result
This article will identify dominant discourses, recurring themes, and the strategic use of language to construct particular meanings and representations. By analyzing the discursive strategies employed, such as framing, metaphor, and the use of pronouns, the study will explore how these linguistic choices contribute to the construction of social identities, the positioning of actors, and the legitimization of particular power relations. Furthermore, the analysis will consider the historical and social context in which these discourses emerged and evolved, examining how they reflect and shape broader political and social realities.
Another noteworthy aspect of the current era, often viewed as the neoliberal era from an international political economy perspective, is the increased prominence of the regional arena and economic issues, supplanting the focus on the macro-structural international arena and security-related issues traditionally associated with realpolitik. The challenge lies in the fact that the way each region is represented, including its spatial and geographical understanding, and the discursive representation of elements like development and underdevelopment, have become more numerous and diverse than before. In other words, the current era places greater emphasis on the linguistic representations employed by political leaders to portray themselves and the regional subsystem encompassing their state.
Within this post-Cold War environment, language itself has emerged as a tool for creating and wielding power, given its role in shaping and expressing knowledge and truth. This is particularly true in diverse and pluralistic political environments and cultures. Understanding the various arrangements governing political cultures within states and at the regional subsystem level necessitates the use of methods like discourse analysis. The importance of grounded and discourse-based language methods in political studies and research, particularly in fields like postcolonial studies exemplified by Edward Said's work on Orientalism, has become increasingly evident and established.
Conclusion
Beyond these considerations, as will be explored in the following article, the method of critical discourse analysis (CDA) offers unique characteristics and functions. CDA equips researchers with the ability to systematically analyze the various functions of discourse and extended texts in terms of representation, the distribution of subject positions, and the establishment of power relations between these positions. As the influence of structural variables wanes, the significance of agency and internal elements comes to the fore. This new objective reality necessitates the diversification.
Research Paper
Ehsan Mozdkhah; Mehdi Najafzadeh; Morteza Manshadi; Seyyed Hossein Athari
Abstract
Introduction
Martin Heidegger, one of the foremost philosophers of the 20th century, offers a radical critique of Western metaphysical traditions while advancing an in-depth analysis of existential ontology. His pivotal concepts, including "Dasein," "Being," and "authenticity," underpin a profound rethinking ...
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Introduction
Martin Heidegger, one of the foremost philosophers of the 20th century, offers a radical critique of Western metaphysical traditions while advancing an in-depth analysis of existential ontology. His pivotal concepts, including "Dasein," "Being," and "authenticity," underpin a profound rethinking of existence and its philosophical implications. Heidegger’s influence extends deeply into continental philosophy, as well as contemporary socio-cultural theory. Central to his inquiry is the role of everyday life in either obscuring or unveiling the fundamental truth of Being. Heidegger contends that individuals often exist within rigid frameworks of pre-established social norms, which foster unconscious conformity at the expense of genuine self-discovery. This phenomenon, which he terms "fallenness," not only alienates individuals from existential questions but reduces them to instruments within socio-cultural structures. These structures, according to Heidegger, operate as mechanisms that regulate norms, power relations, and cultural values, often concealing existential truths while constraining opportunities for authenticity. Heidegger argues that individuals often live within pre-established frameworks and social norms, unconsciously adhering to them rather than discovering the true meaning of their own existence. This inauthentic mode of living, which Heidegger refers to as "fallenness," is a form of being in which individuals become oblivious to deeper existential questions. As a result, they are reduced to mere tools in the hands of socio-cultural forces. In this context, the social realm functions as a force or space in which power structures, cultural norms, and social relations are organized in ways that can limit authentic experiences and obscure existential truths.
Materials & Methods
This study employs an ontological lens to interrogate the notions of the social and the quotidian as articulated in Heidegger’s thought, emphasizing the centrality of Dasein and authenticity. It delves into Heidegger’s critique of inherited philosophical traditions, alongside his exploration of the dynamic interplay between language, routine practices, and social institutions. The methodological approach is qualitative, drawing heavily on primary texts, particularly Heidegger’s Being and Time, while incorporating secondary analyses that situate his philosophy within the broader socio-cultural milieu. This framework enables a nuanced examination of Heidegger’s insights into the roles of temporality, mortality, and normative structures in shaping human existence.
Discussion & Result
Heidegger’s critique of inauthentic existence is firmly rooted in his overarching ontological framework. He characterizes everyday life as predominantly dominated by unexamined conformity to societal norms, which obfuscates the deeper truths of human existence. Such a mode of being fosters dependence on external validation and predefined roles, thereby estranging individuals from their authentic potential. A pivotal pathway to overcoming this alienation is Heidegger’s concept of "Being-towards-death," which underscores mortality as a key enabler of existential reflection and authenticity. By acknowledging the finitude of existence, individuals can disengage from the confines of social conformity and cultivate self-awareness that reveals genuine possibilities. Furthermore, Heidegger’s notion of "Being-with-others" (Mitsein) accentuates the fundamentally relational character of human existence. He posits that the interplay of interpersonal relationships provides the context within which individuals construct their identities. However, the predominance of societal expectations often undermines individual agency, perpetuating the condition of fallenness. Heidegger advocates for critically engaging with these societal frameworks to reconfigure one's interactions with the world and others, thereby fostering conditions for an authentic existence. Heidegger’s treatment of temporality further elucidates the existential structures shaping Dasein’s engagement with the world. Unlike the commodified, linear understanding of time prevalent in modernity, Heidegger conceptualizes temporality as a deeply personal and dynamic phenomenon, interwoven with the past, present, and future. By reclaiming this existential temporality, individuals can resist the alienation imposed by technological rationality and consumerist paradigms, thereby redefining their relational priorities and existential commitments.
Conclusion
Heidegger’s philosophical exploration of the social and everyday life offers an incisive critique of modernity’s dehumanizing tendencies and its influence on individual existence. His emphasis on authenticity, relationality, and temporality provides critical insights for addressing the socio-cultural challenges of contemporary life. By cultivating an acute awareness of mortality, time, and the restrictive nature of normative structures, individuals can transcend the state of fallenness to pursue a more profound and authentic mode of being. This study concludes that Heidegger’s ontological framework not only exposes the mechanisms through which societal systems shape individual existence but also illuminates pathways for reclaiming authentic living amidst the complexities of a mediated, modern world.
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