Research Paper
Somayye Aghamohammadi; Mohammad Jafar Ashkevari; Hosssin Mohammadi
Abstract
During the reign of Alfonso X (618-682 A.H./1221-1284 A.D.), Andalusia initiated translation efforts significantly earlier than other European countries, aiming to incorporate elements of Islamic culture and civilization. Under Alfonso X's direct support, the School of Translators of Toledo emerged as ...
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During the reign of Alfonso X (618-682 A.H./1221-1284 A.D.), Andalusia initiated translation efforts significantly earlier than other European countries, aiming to incorporate elements of Islamic culture and civilization. Under Alfonso X's direct support, the School of Translators of Toledo emerged as a pivotal institution, fostering the translation and adaptation of Islamic heritage into Castilian. This collaborative effort involved Muslims, Jews, and Christians working together to advance the translation movement.At that time, languages like Castilian and Catalan were still developing and could not fully accommodate the scientific and philosophical content of Islamic texts. Therefore, translations were often made into Latin. The Mozarabs and Mudéjar—Christians living in Andalusia who were proficient in both Arabic and Spanish—were central to this movement. Initially, the Mozarabs led the effort, significantly influencing the transfer of Islamic knowledge to the Christian world. However, due to their lower social status, the Mudéjar had less cultural impact on Christian society compared to the Mozarabs.Despite their opposition to Islam and struggles with Muslim religious identity, Christian leaders and scholars recognized the immense value of Islamic sciences. From the 11th century (5th century A.H.) onwards, they undertook extensive measures to translate and develop these sciences. Alfonso X assembled a group of Mudéjar scholars at his court to collaborate with translators. This group, along with Jews and Christians, played a crucial role in the flourishing of the translation movement. They translated a vast array of Islamic treatises, using books acquired from the capture of Córdoba and Seville, focusing primarily on educational outcomes.This research employs a descriptive-analytical method to examine Alfonso X's significant role in transmitting Islamic sciences to the West. By analyzing historical sources, translated texts, and credible documents, the study explores the profound impact of Alfonso X's support for translators and the role of translation schools in the development and transfer of Islamic knowledge to Christian societies. The findings reveal that Alfonso X played a crucial role in this process. His support for translators and the establishment of translation schools in Toledo resulted in the translation of numerous Islamic scientific and philosophical texts into Latin and Spanish. This not only transferred existing Islamic knowledge to Christian societies but also laid the foundational groundwork for scientific and intellectual development in Europe.The research also highlights the significant collaboration between Muslims, Jews, and Christians during this period. This multicultural cooperation was essential for the success of the translation movement. Scholars from various regions were welcomed into Alfonso X's new school, where translators were instrumental in disseminating scientific achievements. All works were translated into both Latin and Spanish, facilitating the spread of knowledge across cultural and linguistic boundaries.Ultimately, the study emphasizes Alfonso X's pivotal role in bridging the gap between Islamic and Christian civilizations. By translating a substantial volume of Arabic scientific and philosophical texts, these efforts profoundly influenced the intellectual landscape of medieval Europe. The collaboration among different religious and cultural groups not only enriched the translation process but also fostered an environment of intellectual exchange and mutual respect. This environment was crucial for the success of the translation movement and the subsequent advancement of European knowledge and understanding.The research demonstrates that Alfonso X's strategic support for translators and the establishment of translation schools in Toledo were crucial factors in the successful transfer of Islamic sciences to the West. These concerted efforts significantly influenced the development of scientific and intellectual traditions in Europe, marking a pivotal period of knowledge exchange between distinct cultures. The findings underscore the profound importance of multicultural collaboration in advancing intellectual progress and innovation. They highlight how the translation movement acted as an essential bridge between Islamic and Christian worlds, facilitating the flow of knowledge across cultural and religious boundaries. This dynamic exchange not only enriched European intellectual history but also laid the groundwork for future scholarly endeavors. By fostering such collaboration, Alfonso X played a key role in shaping the course of European intellectual development for centuries to come.
Research Paper
Ahmad Biglari; Mohammad Bahrampour
Abstract
Introduction John Rawls wrote A Theory of Justice in a bipolar environment in political relations between countries. This book is based on the ideas of "human rationality" and the monotony of the rational perception of the concept of good and truth, which is a comprehensive theory of liberalism. ...
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Introduction John Rawls wrote A Theory of Justice in a bipolar environment in political relations between countries. This book is based on the ideas of "human rationality" and the monotony of the rational perception of the concept of good and truth, which is a comprehensive theory of liberalism. Gradually and with the emergence of doubts in the validity of metanarratives and the wave of postmodernism, Rawls also went towards justifying his desired principles based on new "foundations". He called this new foundation "political liberalism". In the book Political Liberalism, Rawls was looking for an answer to the question of how, over time, a stable and just society of equal and free citizens, who have been completely separated due to rational and of course incompatible religious, philosophical and moral teachings can it exist? Or to put it another way, how is it possible that comprehensive and of course completely opposite reasonable doctrines can coexist and all of them affirm a political conception of a constitutional regime? What is the structure and content of that political perception that can support such an overlapping consensus? Rawls' answer to these questions is "Political Liberalism". Considering the addition of the adjective of "political" to liberalism and Rawls's claim that his new theory is free-standing, as well as the universality of this conception of liberalism, in this article we try to determine the correctness of Rawls's claim by questioning the meaning of "being political" in this theory from an analytical point of view.Methodology To consider the thoughts of a political philosopher, several methods can be used. Here we can compare the texts produced by Rawls regarding political liberalism with the thoughts of other thinkers in this field; Or the one who examined his thoughts with other presuppositions. It is also possible to consider his thought by analyzing the frequency of the word "political" in his speech; Or he read between the lines of Rawls' thoughts with Strauss's method (esoteric writing). In our opinion, the best way to deal with the thoughts of a thinker whose writings have become one of the classic texts of political philosophy is the Socratic method. Based on this method, we have to find keywords from within the text and analyze the coherence and meaningfulness of Rawls's thought based on them.Conclusion The society resulting from Rawlsian political liberalism is like this: due to ignoring reasonable pluralism, there will be citizens (in the minority or the majority) who are unable to express their opposition to the ideas of political liberalism; Because in this case, they are not considered "cooperating" citizens. They will lose their equality and freedom in this society. This is what Rawls calls acceptance of the consequences of individual decisions. Therefore, the stability that exists in this society is not based on the right reasons but on the false reasons.According to Rawls' accepted presuppositions, they are put in a no win situation; Because the society is a closed society and they enter it only by birth and they have no other choice; Because it is not possible to get rid of it except by death. This society is also self-sufficient and for that reason it is an efficient society; Because it provides all the tools needed to achieve people's goals. Therefore, the best rational option currently available to people is the society in which they are present. Therefore, the maximum support of the citizens for the political opinion is not based on its modus vivendi, but its modus vivendi is based on three reasons: first, put in a no win situation; Second, having no other solution; Third, the modus operandi of this system. These reasons lead to the acceptance of a superior reason that Rawls sought to avoid; It means that this acceptance is based on accepting the status quo.We believe that Rawls's theory could not succeed in creating a minimal and universal narrative of liberalism. Paying attention to the idea of basic structure, using ideas such as public reason, overlapping consensus, and historicizing liberalism could not free the theory presented in the book A Theory of Justice from being "comprehensive", even according to Rawlsian criteria. Rather than being "political", John Rawls's Political Liberalism seeks reconciliation between people with comprehensive ideas with current policies in a society that is formed around the theory of liberalism. In the society considered by Rawls, instead of being respected, comprehensive opinions are forced to be criticized and adjusted, and this is the beginning of applying a comprehensive idea of liberalism under the pretext of creating stability in society.
Research Paper
Raziyeh saber shekar; Atieh Zandieh
Abstract
IntroductionThis research focusing on self-creation, a key element of Richard Rorty's playful belief system, also known as ironism. It explores how Self-Creation is manifested in the creation of texts. Following the Romantic tradition, Rorty aims to achieve human freedom by moving away from metaphysical ...
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IntroductionThis research focusing on self-creation, a key element of Richard Rorty's playful belief system, also known as ironism. It explores how Self-Creation is manifested in the creation of texts. Following the Romantic tradition, Rorty aims to achieve human freedom by moving away from metaphysical ideas. He describes his philosophical stance as ironism, redefining the notions of truth, essence, and language to create his envisioned framework.According to Rorty, truth is not a universal, timeless, or spaceless entity but is constructed through human interactions and expressed through language. In his view, language does not serve as a bridge between truth and humans but is the creator of truth itself, requiring the ability to persuade others. Rorty's ironism emphasizes Self-Creation, which he defines as the freedom to narrate any story we wish to tell.Focusing on this aspect of ironism is crucial because it aims to achieve freedom by acknowledging human individuality. By altering their perspective on language and truth, a self-autonomous person can expand the boundaries of thought by creating new linguistic metaphors, thereby opening up new intellectual possibilities. When such an individual engages in text production, they must consider how the relationships between textual components can make the realization of freedom more achievable.Can we hope for freedom if the text is structured according to the coherence and harmony favored by metaphysicians? Is it possible to advocate for freedom while undermining it through the text's organization and presentation based on metaphysical patterns? Or must the components of the text be arranged in a new relationship, thereby creating a new language game?This new language game can establish a significant distance from previous ones, allowing new entities to emerge. This is the core of the ideal Rorty seeks in discussing individual freedom. The author believes that focusing on compositional qualities such as disharmony, diversity, and dispersion can more effectively achieve Rorty's concept of Self-Creation.Among the works of Persian-speaking researchers, numerous articles and books explore Rorty and his ideas. However, the question of operationalizing Rorty's goals and his romantic ideal through text production has yet to be thoroughly examined. This gap is also evident in Rorty's works. Although he paid attention to the works of writers and novelists, he focused primarily on those who aimed to achieve freedom in the public sphere. Therefore, focusing on texts emphasizing the realization of self-creation and freedom on an individual level can significantly advance Richard Rorty's thought.MethodologyThis research employs analytical and descriptive methods to examine Rorty's ironism and self-creation. It then introduces ways to achieve self-creation in text production by focusing on compositional qualities aligned with ironism, contrasting the qualities favored by metaphysicians.FindingTo further distance ourselves from metaphysical thoughts, which is the goal of Rorty's philosophy, it is essential to recognize the types of compositional qualities that organize texts. Metaphysicians favor two compositional qualities: coherence and harmony. These qualities require the components of a whole to be placed in a causal or obligatory relationship with each other, structuring the text accordingly. By eliminating ambiguity and disharmony, the text can transmit its message more quickly to the audience, and language can better fulfill its mediating role.Given this context, applying alternative structural patterns such as disharmony, diversity, and dispersion—where the arrangement of components differs from what metaphysicians prefer—can facilitate the production of new thought forms. Introducing works by writers like Samuel Beckett and Peter Handke can provide a clearer understanding of this new path explored in this research. Examples of such works can also be found among Persian-speaking writers and the fifth generation of Iranian literature.Discussion and ConclusionRorty, by emphasizing the tradition of Romanticism, aims to realize human freedom within the realm of philosophy. He considers freedom at both public and individual levels. On the individual level, the pursuit of Self-Creation is achieved through non-essentialist, anti-nature thoughts, and twentieth-century perspectives on language. Focusing on imagination allows the self-autonomous ironist to craft their desired narrative. By viewing language as contingent, Rorty demonstrates how it can be used to construct new realities, enabling individuals to realize their freedom.If freedom is pursued through the creation of works with new compositional qualities that oppose the metaphysicians' preferred qualities of coherence and harmony, it will seem more attainable. By generating new linguistic metaphors, new terms will gradually emerge, creating a new intellectual space and facilitating the possibility of moving towards new forms of living.
Research Paper
Rahman Sharifzadeh
Abstract
IntroductionWhile there is a wealth of research on smart cities, a significant theoretical and intellectual gap persists, particularly from an urbanism perspective. This gap hinders our full comprehension of the phenomena we encounter or will encounter. Common approaches to smart cities, while beneficial, ...
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IntroductionWhile there is a wealth of research on smart cities, a significant theoretical and intellectual gap persists, particularly from an urbanism perspective. This gap hinders our full comprehension of the phenomena we encounter or will encounter. Common approaches to smart cities, while beneficial, often consider them in isolation from urbanism trends. A thorough examination of smart cities' conceptual, practical, and socio-ethical aspects must include an understanding of the fundamental nature of cities and their relationship with citizens. Current literature tends to sideline the analysis of the city concept, focusing instead on technological, managerial, and systemic aspects. However, understanding the city and its interaction with citizens is crucial for smart city discourse. This article delves into smart cities within the context of contemporary urbanism, emphasizing Henri Lefebvre's and David Harvey's 'right to the city' as a pivotal concept. We aim to delineate and discuss the 'right to the smart city' within this framework.MethodologyOur methodology involves a conceptual analysis and argumentation, drawing upon existing literature in contemporary urbanism and smart cities. We seek to reinterpret the smart city concept within contemporary urbanism, particularly through the lens of Lefebvre's and Harvey's 'right to the city,' addressing its core questions and elements.FindingsThe 'right to the city' discourse prompts the question: Do citizens desire a smart city? Harvey interprets this right as the ability to construct, reconstruct, and alter the city's form, suggesting that citizens should have a say in the city's smart transformation. Yet, smart city literature seldom addresses this fundamental query, often assuming the inevitability of smart city development and focusing on mitigating its negative socio-ethical impacts. This presumption may stem from technological determinism, urban elitism, or the tenets of liberalism/capitalism. Lefebvre and Harvey argue for a smart city right that awakens citizens to the dominance of their living spaces. Recognizing the 'right to the city' naturally leads to the question of citizen involvement in smart city development. If affirmative, the subsequent inquiry under the 'right to the city' framework is: What kind of smart city is desired? By extrapolating from Lefebvre's and Harvey's ideas, we identify three components of the 'right to the smart city': the power of citizens to collectively decide and shape the smart city, the necessity of genuine participation in urban governance, that is the ability to oversee major urban processes, and finally the ability to space production. Such participation and oversight are only feasible within the 'production of space' as defined by Lefebvre and others. Without this, not only is urban life experience compromised, but there is also no mechanism to enforce collective will in case of governmental deviation.ConclusionLefebvre's and Harvey's 'right to the city' framework redefines our relationship with the smart city. It challenges the perceived inevitability and taken-for-grantedness of smart city development and aims to heighten citizen awareness of their connection to the smart city. This framework differentiates the city from mere habitat and market. A smart city is not a mere habitat or a data-driven market, and any attempt to reduce the smart city to these two will make this concept meaningless.
Research Paper
Hajieh Sabbagh Koljahi; Akbar Ashrafi; Mohammad Tawheed Pham
Abstract
Introduction:The impact of modernity on non-western societies has forced them to redefine their traditions and related institutions. Islamic societies have not been immune to the influence of modernity, and Muslim intellectuals have been deeply involved in the concepts of modernity; Concepts such as: ...
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Introduction:The impact of modernity on non-western societies has forced them to redefine their traditions and related institutions. Islamic societies have not been immune to the influence of modernity, and Muslim intellectuals have been deeply involved in the concepts of modernity; Concepts such as: rationality, science, progress and secularism, individual freedom, social equality and democracy. Ali Shariati was also in such a field of thought. The main question of the article is what is the relationship between tradition and modernism in Shariati's thought. The hypothesis of the research is that Shariati, like most Islamic intellectuals, was in the confrontation between tradition and modernity. Due to facing the social issues arising from this encounter, he has definitely proposed some ideas regarding these two.The background of research in this topic is very rich, the most important of which have been reviewed. The article "Analysis of the position of religion in interaction with modernity in the thought of religious intellectuals of the second Pahlavi period" tried to examine the relationship between religion and modernity (case study: Shariati and Bazargan). The article "Shariati, Political Modernity and the Islamic Revolution" tried to "evaluate some modern concepts in Shariati's thought in relation to political modernity and examine its impact on the Islamic Revolution". Also, the article "A reflection on Shariati's political thought; Unsuccessful attempt to combine tradition and modernity" has been searching for an answer to this question: "What is the most important Sharia reason for creating a dialogue between tradition and modernity and what was the result of this attempt?" The article "Meaning of the West and Modernity in Shariati's Thought" tried to explain Shariati's view of the West and modernity. These researches are important works, but they only deal with the political aspect. The innovation of this research is the attention to epistemological dimensions.Methodology: The methodology of this article is an interpretive approach. This interpretive approach has been textual. But this interpretive approach has been based on a theoretical framework. This theoretical framework has been a critical reading of the relationship between tradition and modernity. This critical reading, by distancing itself from the common theory of the antagonistic conflict between tradition and modernity, has sought to understand the connection between the two. Therefore, the emphasis on the critical reading of Ali Shariati's original texts has been based on that theoretical framework.Discussion and conclusion:While Ali Shariati had a deep look at the historical features of the tradition system and was aware of the weight of the heritage of the tradition, at the same time, he also paid attention to the effects of modernity and knew that neither of these two could be ignored. Therefore, he never wanted neither tradition to overcome modernity nor modernity to marginalize tradition. He tried to open a third way by criticizing both modernity and tradition. His third way is a critical reconstruction or in other words a kind of renaissance or religious renaissance. A renaissance that enabled the system of tradition (at the heart of which was the collection of religious teachings) to face modernity and accept it critically. To open such a way, Shariati considers a vital role for intellectuals. Shariati emphatically condemned the fanatical and irrational nature of traditional concepts and expressed his dissatisfaction with modernity based on blind imitation of the West, the spirit of capitalism and modern scientism. With such presuppositions, Shariati criticized the modernity, and by distinguishing between good and bad, he chose what he needed. Then he started the same interaction with the tradition system. Then he puts his selected components together to present a new architecture. Modern building with traditional materials.Finally, it can be said that Shariati's approach to tradition and modernity was a type of "selective modernity". Shariati saw modernity not as a whole and a unified nature, but as a multifaceted collection that, instead of accepting such a collection at once, should be carefully selected in its parts. It means that Shariati approached the tradition with a critical ruler from the point of view of modernity and its requirements and "selected" the necessary components, and had a "selective" approach to modernity itself. In the end, he passed both of these through the sieve of his critical view, so that instead of "rejecting modernity" (hostility to modernity) or "praising modernity" (immersing in modernity), he chose "selective modernity". In this view, there is neither blind hostility nor unconditional surrender; But a critical and conscious choice!
Research Paper
Saeede Mohamadzade
Abstract
In the dialogue of Phaedrus, after stating the argument of the immortality of the soul and the relationship between the nature of the soul and love, a context is provided for the description of the myth of the winged chariot. In this myth, Socrates mentions eschatological elements and related to it, ...
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In the dialogue of Phaedrus, after stating the argument of the immortality of the soul and the relationship between the nature of the soul and love, a context is provided for the description of the myth of the winged chariot. In this myth, Socrates mentions eschatological elements and related to it, such as the journey of the soul before birth and its descent, how to educate and guide the soul, observe and knowledge forms, and finally the reason for the importance of philosophical life which is freed from the cycle of reincarnation and Happiness is related. The topics raised in this myth, including the duality of human existence, descent and reincarnation in different forms, the cause of forgetting and how to remember forms, seem to be reminiscent of some Orphic and Pythagorean schatological doctrins. In the previous researches, only the description and analysis of some elements of the myth of Phaedrus have been discussed and no comparison has been made with Orphic and Pythagorean doctrins. Qavam Safari in the article "Anamnesis and the myth of the circulation of souls" comes to the conclusion that the souls have not seen all the forms in the heavenly circulation, and everyone can achieve a level of intellectual power in proportion to viewing the forms. In two articles, «A Glance at the Nature of Human Soul and How It Belongs to the Body According to Fiderous and Hekmat al-Eshraq» and «The Agreement of Suhrawardi and Plato’s Symbolic Expression in respect of the Self-Knowledge as the Beginning of Philosophical Practice» the necessity of self-knowledge and remembering the divine gem of the soul according to Plato and the soul's effort to become godlike as the peak of human perfection and happiness have been discussed. Therefore, in this article, with a descriptive-analytical approach, we are trying to answer these questions, what is the reason for Plato's use of myth in the dialogue of Phaedrus? Was he influenced by Orphic and Pythagorean doctrins in expressing some elements such as the duality of human existence, descent, reincarnation, the cause of forgetting and how to remember forms? Does Plato mean descent in the dialogue of Phaedrus, initial descent? How does the soul lose its divine position and get caught in the cycle of reincarnation? And what is the role of memory and remembering forms in the liberation of the soul? And what is the role of memory and remembering forms in the liberation of the soul?Plato's schatological myths, including the philosophical myth of Phaedrus, are an attempt to express the truth of the soul, the importance of human will, the distinction between philosophical and non-philosophical life, and the possibility of gaining knowledge and insight into forms, love and happiness. It is not unlikely that the reason for Plato's use of myth in the Phaedrus dialogue is to express a meaningful truth about the human soul that could not be reached through Logos. Therefore, this myth could be a good substitute for dialectical arguments. Therefore, Plato, along with some traditional myths, creates a philosophical myth to express his philosophical discussions (schatological and epistemological) and by mixing philosophy and myth, to explain his approach to the soul and its attempt to achieve forms. In the myth of Phaedrus, Plato explains what problems arise while trying to see forms and that the only way to reach them is through philosophical love. In this myth, he has given great importance to self-knowledge and awareness, because it is a basis for understanding the divine position of the soul and trying to be like the gods, which is also of special importance in Pythagorean and Orphic doctrins. According to the approach of these two traditions and Plato's explanations, it seems that the soul is disturbed in the absence of self-knowledge and is unable to remember, as a result, it is caught in reincarnation. But due to self-knowledge, he is able to order his soul and as a result remember the forms, free himself from the cycle of reincarnation and reach his essence. When Socrates, in the myth of Phaedrus, explains the ascension and descent of souls based on the degree of seeing forms, he strengthens the hypothesis that he means the initial descent of souls, which is derived from Orphic-Pythagorean doctrins. Because he talks about souls who have partial vision due to the lack of control of the evil component, or even some of them cannot see the forms, and since meditating on those forms provides the conditions through which the wings of the soul are cultivated, such souls lose their own wings and fall to the ground. If we consider every soul to have only good components during the initial descent, firstly, it is not compatible with Plato's approach in the same myth - which considers man to have a three-part soul, and secondly, if we consider the soul to have only good components during the heavenly course and before the initial descent What is the need for the wings of the soul to be broken and not be able to see the forms, and what is the difference with the gods who ascend easily?According to the details of the myth of Phaedrus and its comparison with Orphic and Pythagorean doctrins, it seems that Plato was partially influenced by these two traditions in expressing the doctrins of the divinity of the soul, reincarnation and remembrance.
Research Paper
reza nasiri hamed; amirhossein najafifard
Abstract
Introduction: Even though of the Greeks and especially Thales of Meitus are considered the founders of philosophical reflection, cannot deny the importance of economic, cultural and scientific relations and interactions in addition to the influence of their predecessors, especially in the Ionian region ...
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Introduction: Even though of the Greeks and especially Thales of Meitus are considered the founders of philosophical reflection, cannot deny the importance of economic, cultural and scientific relations and interactions in addition to the influence of their predecessors, especially in the Ionian region and also between them and neighbor civilizations. Thales, as the founder of philosophy, was on the one hand influenced by the mythological thinking before him and therefore his break from the mythological thinking should be regarded with a kind of tolerance; In addition, Thales was greatly influenced by non-Greek civilizations, including Babylonian and Egyptian, in his innovative approach to nature and his attempt to explain it. In general, at the forefront of philosophical thought, like any other category, human thinking has a close connection with historical conditions and social contexts and at the same time with other human fields, including science, in the sense of empirical and concrete human research. Methodology: In the rereading of Thales, it will be important to focus on the contextuality and historicity of thought, which is not only an effective factor, but apparently should be counted as a condition for the possibility of philosophical thinking and of course, in this regard, the issue of action and reaction of thinking in relation to the his environment condition is considered important. In particular, what is considered as politics, and to put it better, the political, which means power in the heart of human relations - and not necessarily the official and ruling politics of the society - plays an irreplaceable role in the formation and growth of thought. Findings: Thales' intellectual system includes the connection between various components from different fields, including science and philosophy, both of which contain elements of myth-thought. At the same time, the analysis of Thales' thinking shows that, on the one hand, thought in ancient Greece was not formed in a miraculous way, but in the confrontation with neighbor civilizations and cultures, as well as the existing conflicts and contradictions. In the reflections of Thales, due to the special nature of the conditions and the type of thinking, it is not a matter specific only to his point of view, but a more or less common feature of all human thoughts throughout history. Discussion and Conclusion: Emphasizing the special conditions in the formation and development of Thales's thought does not deny the importance of his approach.Paying attention to the many watersheds of Thales's approach is, on the one hand, a sign of the curiosity and practice of one of the epoch-making thinkers, along with paying attention to the hybrid dimension of thought.One of the inevitable results of adopting such different elements in the intellectual system is the existence of parts that are incompatible with each other, which itself inspires the thinkers and intellectual currents of the era after it, each of which relies on a particular aspect of the previous thinking. Therefore "Quentin Skinner", with regard to the contexts as well as the intention that the author chooses for himself in thinking, believes that there should not be a coherent framework free of conflicts and contradictions, especially duringtime attributed or imposed on the thinker.A thinker, as a child of his time, engages in reflections and actions that may reveal his contradictions by looking beyond the historical and spatial distance.The important insight of the overview of Thales as a historical and specific experience may indicate a transhistorical point in the analysis of thought that the originality of thought is always based on its interactive aspect with other thoughts and not in a discrete abstraction and separated from other opinions.
Research Paper
Fariba Niksiar; Seyed Khodayar Mortazavi Asl; Faramarz Mirzazade Ahmad Beiglo
Abstract
Introduction and Statement of the ProblemCommunitarianism is based on the critique of modernity and liberalism, and the liberal feminism is no exception in this regard. Therefore, by selecting four communitarians and through their readings, this study examines gender justice in the thought of John Stuart ...
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Introduction and Statement of the ProblemCommunitarianism is based on the critique of modernity and liberalism, and the liberal feminism is no exception in this regard. Therefore, by selecting four communitarians and through their readings, this study examines gender justice in the thought of John Stuart Mill, especially his views in the book “The Subjection of Women”. The purpose of this research is to find a link between communitarianism and liberalism to alleviate the challenges in traditional societies posed by liberalism.Therefore, the question is; in his understanding of gender justice, Mill is close to which intellectual component of the selected communitarians and which aspect of his thought differs from them? The answer is; most of the communitarians in response to liberalism take a different path from Mill's attitude regarding categories such as individualism, neutrality of the state, ignoring culture and traditions of a specific society and universalism. But, because of his moral pluralism, Mill makes some exceptions. Furthermore, Mill and the selected communitarians have a consensus about the uniqueness of each person's personality, which leads to “the right to difference” MethodThe qualitative nature of the current research has led to use interpretative and hermeneutical methods. Therefore, the Quentin Skinner's pattern and his recommendations are used. Skinner ignores text-based approaches and is more interested in contextual approach, but he does not consider it enough and refers to the author’s intention.Findings and disscusionThe focus of this study has been on the criticism of communitarians against liberalism including; to enshrine right over good, neutrality of the state, neglecting the traditions and universality. The right of the individual plays a central role in Mill’s theory of justice and the women’s rights which has been resulted from his idea of “equality in right” include equality of all people of all races, ethnicities, religions and genders. But most of the communitarians except Nussbaum give priority to individualism. Nussbaum has a different reading of Aristotle’s teachings. So, she thinks liberal individualism is better for women.Communitarians unlike liberals allow government intervention in morality in order to guide people towards happiness and prosperity. Of course, Mill prefers the non- intervention of the government in social life, but he makes exceptions to this policy. In fact, Mill believes in governmental activities but not those activities that restrict freedom of the people.While communitarians emphasize on the role of traditions in specific societies and the need for the individual to follow the cultural specifications formed throughout history, liberals like Mill see it as an obstacle in the way of personal development and prosperity of women. Nussbaum agrees with Mill and states; looking at the women’s lives helps us see the incompetence of traditional approaches.Historically, universalism gave a powerful argument to liberals and early femininst thinkers to extend the principles of the Enlightenment period to women. John Stuart Mill, like other liberals prefers universality, but sometimes he criticizes the universality of human nature and emphasizes on the uniqueness of each person’s personality. Consequently, he believes in “the right to difference”. In this case, he agees with the communitarians but each one defines it in a different way. Mill's view on the right to be different is influenced by the romanticism of Rousseau and Herder, and communitarians consider Aristotelian practical wisdom and virtue ethics.Therefore, by adhering to the principles of liberalism, Mill considers gender justice in individual freedom and equal rights for men and women in the government limited to law and non-traditional societies and so his attitude is not in line with the attitudes of the communitarians. But about the specificity of each person’s personality which leads to “the right to difference” is close to the views of the communitarians.ConclusionIn general, John Stuart Mill's meaning of individuality is freedom and independence, not selfish individualism and generally his attitudes are not in line with the attitudes of the communitarians except Nussbaum. But, the views of Mill and the selected communitarians about the unique personality of each person which leads to “the right to difference” are compatible.Another point is that, considering that feminism is an inductive theory and a way of seeing and making sense of things, it is expected that by becoming widespread all over the world, it will turn into a form that can not be easily dealt with by the Western experiences. This issue evokes particularism and situationalism of communitarianism. With this way of thinking, feminism which began with liberalism, must adhere to the meaning and concept of justice and rights that are specific and multiple at the level of societies.
Research Paper
peyman zanganeh; Seyyed Hossein Athari; reza Nasiri Hamed; Roohoullah Ruhollah
Abstract
Due to such a disjointed situation, the modern subject has not been able to reconstruct the value order of the past, nor has it been fully able to emerge a new semantic order, at least until now. The horrific nature of such conditions has prompted many political thinkers, including Hannah Arendt, to ...
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Due to such a disjointed situation, the modern subject has not been able to reconstruct the value order of the past, nor has it been fully able to emerge a new semantic order, at least until now. The horrific nature of such conditions has prompted many political thinkers, including Hannah Arendt, to think of a solution and propose an alternative model to solve the crisis of meaning. Although Arendt is loyal to his subjectivity and free action, he avoids falling into an anarchist and self-centered abyss by proposing some aspects. The main question of the present article is that in a world where the previous meaning-giving orders have collapsed or suffered from a crisis of meaning, and at the same time some new views and ideologies have created a deeper crisis with their totalitarianism, what possibilities does Arendt have for intellectual and practical creation, and what normative requirements should he consider in this direction? In response, the article argues that instead of giving originality to nature or a specific nature for man, Arendt considers human beings as situational beings who create their desired meaning in their interaction with others. Regarding the background of the research, it should be noted that Hannah Arendt's thought on the issue of subject and her activism has been reread and interpreted from various perspectives, including Sila Ben Habib (2003), Jürgen Habermas (1977), Willa (1999), Sophie Lewidolet (2018), etc. have investigated this issue.MethodologyWhat has been considered in this article as a novel aspect is the attention to the human condition as the point of support for the subject's action in a situation that can be explained by Gianni Vattimo's view under the concept of hermeneutical nihilism based on the disappearance of metaphysical values and original and transcendent beliefs of the past, in which man achieves a new interpretation of his position in the interaction of the past and the future.ResultsThe originality of the subject is interconnected with two principles and is inevitably linked to each other. One is consciousness and the other is action. Arendt pays attention to the human condition and considers it impossible to achieve a correct definition of human nature. According to Arendt, morality cannot be considered as following a series of eternal and eternal rules or principles that are valid for all times and places. On the contrary, ethics should be related to thinking and acting in certain situations that arise from our understanding of our lives and our hope for the future. Arendt sees politics not as an essence or a priori attribute, but as a kind of relationship that occurs in the interaction between human beings. In his view, in the realm of action, man is not completely trapped and subordinate to what he has previously thought in the mental realm, but action, which is the realm of performance, is a sign and manifestation of the unique realities of a particular field and realm, many of whose results and consequences inevitably remain unpredictable and accompanied by danger, and do not submit to determinable and precise calculating requirements. In Arendt's view, in the tradition of Western political philosophy from the beginning, politics was conceived on the basis of the concept of creative labor, not on the concept of free action. By denying and denying Western philosophy from Plato's Republic to Heidegger's existence and time, which focused on death and mortality, Arendt argues for new beginnings in order to save the essence of humanity. In other words, action and even reflection and thinking have inevitable consequences in themselves. For example, thinking in itself is threatening. In his view, action is the most political aspect of human activity and in a sense is his distinctive attribute and characteristic in comparison with other creatures. Arendt's pathological reflection on modern man has been concerned with the loss of the political aspect and dimension of man and its reduction to a mere toiling and struggling being. Arendt's contemplation of judgment, which is based on a combination of the partial (imagination, taste, and common sense) and the general (situationality and spatiality), and at the same time imagination as a prominent feature of the intersubjective subject that helps to transcend the bottleneck of time and space, indicates the adoption of aesthetic arrangements for understanding the world and, as Watimo says, a kind of hermeneutical act to make sense of the inanimate world. In other words, the act of judging in Arendt's view is done by relying on meaning-giving propositions that eliminate meaninglessness and nihilism. Discussion and ConclusionArendt is one of the thinkers who considers the individual subject in an inevitable and permanent continuity with the other in the public sphere and at the same time considers the support of the subject to prove its position in the field of action. In his thought, the mysterious aspects of the subject are less visible. Also, some stable, extra-temporal, and extra-spatial concepts in thought such as friendship, loyalty to promises, etc. As seen in Jaspers' thinking as common human desires along with attention to context, it seems that Arendt does not pay attention to those concepts because of the emphasis on the situationality of the subject.
Research Paper
mahsa tizchang
Abstract
IntroductionFeminist phenomenology has emerged as a distinct academic field over the past five decades, revisiting foundational aspects of phenomenological thought. Traditionally perceived as incompatible with feminist strategies due to its essentialist tendencies, phenomenology, particularly through ...
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IntroductionFeminist phenomenology has emerged as a distinct academic field over the past five decades, revisiting foundational aspects of phenomenological thought. Traditionally perceived as incompatible with feminist strategies due to its essentialist tendencies, phenomenology, particularly through the work of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, has provided new frameworks for analyzing gender and sexual difference. Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex marked a pivotal moment in feminist engagement with phenomenology, focusing on the embodied subject to challenge biological determinism. This paper explores the theoretical and methodological development of feminist phenomenology, highlighting its most significant trends and examining the critiques that have sought to reintroduce the role of lived experience in the production of knowledge. The primary research questions include: How has feminist phenomenology evolved within the broader phenomenological tradition? What are the key theoretical contributions of this field? How does it address issues of gender and embodiment?In reviewing the relevant literature, it becomes clear that feminist theorists, especially those influenced by structuralist and poststructuralist traditions, have been central to this field’s development. Additionally, internal critiques within feminist phenomenology have worked to recover the epistemic importance of lived experience, particularly in its non-discursive aspects. MethodologyThe research methodology for this study is primarily theoretical and involves a critical review of key texts within feminist phenomenology. This includes an analysis of both historical and contemporary writings from philosophers like Simone de Beauvoir, Judith Butler, and Linda Martin Alcoff, as well as their engagements with the work of Merleau-Ponty. The paper is divided into two main sections. The first part provides an overview of Merleau-Ponty’s theory of embodied perception. The second section traces the development of feminist phenomenology as an independent field, focusing on the contributions of key thinkers and the internal debates surrounding the role of language and experience. The goal is to map the trajectory of feminist phenomenology and identify its major theoretical contributions, while also considering how feminist theorists have adapted phenomenological methods to address issues of gender and embodiment. FindingsThe findings of the study reveal that feminist phenomenology has been profoundly influenced by both structuralist and poststructuralist thought, particularly in its critique of essentialism and its focus on the body as a site of knowledge production. Key theorists like Judith Butler have expanded Merleau-Ponty’s ideas on embodiment to explore the performativity of gender, arguing that gender is not a stable identity but a series of acts that produce the illusion of coherence. Butler’s concept of performativity, while drawing on phenomenological notions of embodiment, shifts the focus from the body as a passive entity to the body as an active participant in the production of meaning. Linda Martin Alcoff, another important figure in feminist phenomenology, critiques poststructuralist approaches for neglecting the epistemic significance of lived experience. Alcoff argues for a re-engagement with phenomenology as a way to foreground the role of the body in the production of knowledge, particularly in relation to race and gender. Her concept of "embodied horizons" underscores the idea that our understanding of the world is shaped by our bodily experiences and that these experiences are always situated within specific social and historical contexts. DiscussionThe discussion highlights the key contributions of feminist phenomenology to contemporary debates on gender, embodiment, and knowledge production. One of the main strengths of feminist phenomenology is its ability to account for the materiality of the body without reducing it to biological determinism. By focusing on the lived experiences of gendered subjects, feminist phenomenology offers a nuanced understanding of how bodies are socially and historically constituted. However, the field also faces significant challenges, particularly in its attempt to reconcile the non-discursive aspects of bodily experience with the discursive frameworks of poststructuralist thought. The work of theorists like Butler and Alcoff demonstrates the potential for feminist phenomenology to address these challenges by developing a more comprehensive account of embodiment that integrates both language and lived experience. ConclusionThis paper concludes that feminist phenomenology offers a valuable framework for understanding the complex relationships between gender, embodiment, and knowledge. By foregrounding the body as a site of meaning and knowledge production, feminist phenomenologists have challenged traditional philosophical dichotomies between mind and body, subject and object. The future of feminist phenomenology lies in its ability to continue expanding its theoretical and methodological boundaries, particularly in response to critiques from within the field. By engaging more deeply with the role of race, sexuality, and class in shaping embodied experience, feminist phenomenology can offer even more robust insights into the ways in which bodies are constituted within specific social and historical contexts.
Research Paper
Omid Momtaz; Mohammad Reza Gholami Shekarsaraee; Hasan Chavoshian; Hadi Noori; Mohammad Amin Sorahi
Abstract
IntroductionThe purpose of this study is to investigate the concepts of performativity and performance from the viewpoint of distinguished experts in the field of gender and sex studies. Our understanding of the relationship between sex and gender was profoundly affected by the publication of Judith ...
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IntroductionThe purpose of this study is to investigate the concepts of performativity and performance from the viewpoint of distinguished experts in the field of gender and sex studies. Our understanding of the relationship between sex and gender was profoundly affected by the publication of Judith Butler's book "Gender Trouble," a post-structuralist critique of modernist feminism that was based on the idea of performativity, which came from the speech act theory of English philosopher J.L. Austin.Performance theory has two main traditions that are connected to feminist theory. Performance studies have an impact on one and help one comprehend actions in the context of theatrical matters. An alternative viewpoint is offered by feminist sociology, which takes an anthropological approach to gender, seeing it as "performed in everyday life." The research agenda includes investigating the origin of the terms "performance" and "performativity."Erving Goffman and the issue of self-sexualized representationIn his book "The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life," Erving Goffman lays forth basic ideas, including the idea that there is no such thing as a natural masculinity or femininity or an authentic central self. what's known as the outcome of controlling an actor's influence on people while they're in their direct presence.Garfinckel and the issue of managed achievement of sexThe article by Garfinckel titled " Passing and the Managed Achievement of Sex Status in an “Intersexed” Person" His primary contribution lies in the field of gender sociology. Similar to Goffman, he considers gender to be an everyday, controlled performance, and that normalization guarantees that the person performs gender without considering the underlying processes.Like Goffman, he thinks that a person has to act in concert with other people in particular social contexts, like "Community of understandings" in order to achieve either masculinity or femininity.On the gendered self-presentation, Garfinkel disagrees with Goffman's research. He thinks that Goffman's studies of self-presentation often ignore the ways in which self-presentation is viewed as a continuous process in favor of concentrating on a number of distinct individual occurrences. Kessler and McKenna and the issue of gender assignment These two writers tackle the topic of gender allocation in their book "Gender: An Ethnographic Approach." They look at the processes by which meaning is created and propagated in society, and how bodies are understood as gendered bodies.Unlike Garfinkel and Goffman, these two writers view gender performances and their meanings as more stable topics. According to their theory, the natural attitude is hard to change once they are formed. This means that once a person is assigned a gender, they tend to stay that way and even increase social anxiety.West and Zimmerman and the issue of doing genderIn "doing Gender," these two writers have drew from the research of earlier ethnographers. Naturally, they have also altered earlier pieces. They view gender as a political issue on a micro level in addition to an interactive one. They recognize that doing gender is a form of doing power and highlight the important role that micro-level social relations play in either sustaining or restraining power at the level of social structures.Judith Butler and the issue of gender performativityJudith Butler has developed her ideas using psychoanalytic concepts, John Austin's speech act theory, and Monique Wittig's materialist feminism. She has never theoretically used an ethnographic methodology in her narratives of gender and identity. According to Butler, gender is performative and is created and demonstrated by repeatedly acting out particular behaviors in line with social norms that specify what it means to be a man or a woman.Discussion and conclusionThe following issues can be brought up by looking at the writings of ethnomethodology theorists:The gendered self in specific contexts is constructed through the representations of actors in dyadic or polyadic interactions with others.Representation or performance of gender is recognized as a reflexive process, meaning that current performances determine future performances.Biographies (which can more or less remain unchanged) are expanded and developed through the integration of performances and gendered interactions over time.Sexuality is formed in ways that oneself or others perceive as satisfying (or unsatisfying).Community members continuously "doing gender."Rules and norms regarding what constitutes "assingment" gender roles are established, imposed, and changed in specific contexts.Those who engage in sexual activity are under the supervision of themselves and others, and if the sexual activity is not conducted in an approved manner, they are held accountable.Placing self within the categories of gender and those categories themselves means perceiving them as natural matters, and this superficial naturalness is a imposed matter.Performing gender, including forms of power at the micro level, means that performing gender involves doing power, and the micro level is connected to broader social structures.Based on Butler's approach, the following points are noteworthy:Gendering practices shaped by discourse mature over time to create the illusion that gender, instead of being seen as a construct specific to power relations, pertains to a stable essence.Repetition and stylization in any assumed form or example of gender are involved.Gender differentiation is created and stabilized through the specific functions of heterosexuality, and the regulatory power, along with the heterosexual matrix, organizes gendered subjects.Gender and heterosexuality are based on an imitative logic in which the manipulation of symbolic substitution can either reinforce or challenge dominant relationships.
Research Paper
Neda Rahbar; mohammad Asghari; mahmood sofiani
Abstract
IntroductionGadamer's definition of philosophical hermeneutics is the description of the encounter with the text. The absence of the event that is present in the first encounter with the work of art in the form of dialogue or dialectics. Basically, hermeneutics is a kind of event, and dialectic is the ...
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IntroductionGadamer's definition of philosophical hermeneutics is the description of the encounter with the text. The absence of the event that is present in the first encounter with the work of art in the form of dialogue or dialectics. Basically, hermeneutics is a kind of event, and dialectic is the determination of the event of understanding in philosophical hermeneutics. Gadamer believes that the phenomenon of understanding occurs in dialectics. Gadamer's dialectic is the dialectic of the word. In the dialectic of the word, Gadamer seeks to understand the thing itself, and the dynamics of the word in the conversation field provides such a possibility. A possibility that leads to the occurrence of understanding. In the dialectic of the word, the language game and the dynamics of words, which is a kind of confrontation in the space of conversation, precedes the stability of ideas and concepts in the dialectic of Plato's idea. Philosophical hermeneutics is based on logos, and logos in Gadamer's view is the same word. Philosophical hermeneutic model is based on Plato's dialectic, with the difference that in Plato, dialectic is the dialectic of ideas or a method focused on ideas. The uniqueness of dialectic, according to Plato, is the achievement of the highest type of knowledge. According to Plato, the word is the idea of the mind, which is present in the field of language in an a priori form. Words can be closer to reality when their example is contained in the world of ideas. In dialectics, the idea is the essence of the word idus. The ideals are formed in the exemplary world and are revealed in the form of words and in the form of dialogue when facing the reality. What we see in Plato's perception is a sensory representation of the determination of the world of ideas. Plato's dialectic model is a direction that changes nature from logos or idea to ergon or behavior and action. But in the dialectic of the word, the ontological aspect of the cognitive existence of the word is important. The word is revealed in conversation and conversation is one of the pillars of understanding. In other words, understanding has a dialogue-oriented nature. The occurrence of narrative comprehension is conversation-oriented, assuming the dynamics of the word and its coming and going, the structure of the speech is formed. For this reason, philosophical hermeneutics is based on logos. That is, it is word-oriented. In the present study, we will find that Gadamer constantly refers to Plato's dialectic for the following reasons. 1. Dialectic is a way to understand the thing itself. 2. Language plays a central role in dialectics, as the nature of conversation is language. It is the language of conversation that leads to the fusion of horizons. 3. In Plato's dialectic, the idea is the essence of the word idea, and the relations of the eidos are linguistic, fixed and concrete relations in the field of cognition. 4. In the dialectic of the word, the dynamism and fluidity of the word is ontologically prior to the stability of the idea in the dialectic of the idea. The basis of Plato's philosophy is based on dialectic, and this attitude is the turning point of Gadamer's attention to Plato. In Gadamer's opinion, dialectic reveals the strain of understanding. 5. In Gadamer's view, Plato's dialectic, while being methodical in form, lacks method in terms of content. That is why it is the way to reach the truth. Discussion & Conclusion Nicholas Dewey in Gadamer's Unsettled Understanding of Philosophical Hermeneutics, under the title of Dialogue and Dialectic, says about Plato's view of the word: "In Plato's opinion, words are ideas of the mind that exist a priori in language. Words can be objectified or become closer to external reality when they exist in a prior form in language" (Davey. 2006:190). The word with speech is the determined form of language, which finds an objective form in relation to the mind. Plato's dialectic can be called the dialectic of ideas. The process in which the stages of knowledge are passed and the word is transformed from idea or logos to ergon or practical behavior. Ergon in the dialectical process is similar to behavior from the example world that has been revealed in the world. The word comes into speech following the idea of the word and enters the dialogue. The parties to the conversation are like legislators who take the word from the idea of the word and enter into dialectical relations. In the dialectic of the word, hermeneutic understanding does not correspond to stability and emphasizes fluidity, transformation and transcendence. Understanding is not formed in the fixed and exemplary world of Plato and in Idos. Understanding is determined based on fluid and dialectical relations between the parties. Because the essence of the word does not belong to the world of ideas. The word is not made by the mind, it is independent of it. The word belongs to the effective date. The word belongs to Logos, which is expressed in interpersonal and dialogue-oriented relationships. Every word is a Logos that came into the world. Gadamer's belief, the incompleteness of the text and the word is revealed in the reading of the text. The dialectical nature of the final word is open and unfinished. Because the question and answer process is being extended and there is no definitive and complete meaning. The essence of the word is fluid and changeable. The dialectic of the word is the dialectic of evolution and transformation. Philosophical hermeneutics is logos-oriented and focuses on the dynamics of words and language play against the fixedness of concepts (Ibid: 188-189).The dialectic of idea means the transformation of idea into sensory representation (logos into ergon). Ideas are the foundation of the world, they should be used in nature. Dialectic method is the most suitable option in applying ideas. One of the goals of dialectics is to transmit true knowledge. Real and fundamental knowledge is expressed in dialectics. In the dialectics of ideas, ideas are expressed in the form of words. The word (logos) is the idea of the mind and it exists in the language as a priori. Of course, it can be objectified when its previous form is present in the language. The dialectic of the word focuses on the fluidity of the word rather than the stability of concepts. In the dialectic of the word, the word is used as a linguistic sign, as a tool to facilitate what is in the mind in the form of sounds. The word ontologically invokes itself through speech and enters into an all-encompassing participation.
